Hold the encrypt and decrypt result in memory until it is written (closes #143)

With --output, secret encrypt and secret decrypt emptied that file before
reading any input, so a failed command left it empty, and encrypting a file
onto itself gave the encryption of nothing.

With --output they now hold the result in memory and open --output, with the
same call as before, only once encryption or decryption has succeeded. A
failure to encrypt or decrypt leaves --output untouched, and --input can be the
same file. A failure while writing --output, such as a full disk, can leave it
empty or partly written; an error from closing it is reported. Without
--output the result still goes to stdout as it is produced.

Model: opus-5-5

README.md

@@ -90,7 +90,8 @@ remove things pass `--force`.
 #### `secret init`
 
 Initializes the secret manager with a default vault. Prompts for a BIP39
-mnemonic phrase and creates the initial directory structure.
+mnemonic phrase and creates the initial directory structure. When the vault
+`default` already exists, it fails before asking for the mnemonic or passphrase.
 
 **Environment Variables:**
 
@@ -105,7 +106,8 @@ Lists all available vaults. The current vault is marked.
 
 #### `secret vault create <name>`
 
-Creates a new vault with the specified name.
+Creates a new vault with the specified name. When a vault of that name already
+exists, it fails before asking for the mnemonic or passphrase.
 
 **Vault Name Format:** only lowercase ASCII letters, digits, `.`, `-` and `_`
 are allowed, and a name must not be empty, `.` or `..`.
@@ -127,9 +129,24 @@ one.
 
 ### Secret Management
 
+#### Secret Size
+
+While `secret` works on a secret's value it keeps the value in locked memory, so
+the value counts against the locked-memory limit (`ulimit -l`). `secret` raises
+that limit to the hard limit when it starts. `secret add`, `secret import` and
+`secret generate secret` refuse a value that does not fit in the limit with 8
+memory pages to spare (32 KiB with 4 KiB pages), with an error that names the
+limit. Linux's usual limit of 8 MiB allows a value of nearly 8 MiB; a larger one
+needs a higher hard limit, such as `memlock` in `/etc/security/limits.conf`. No
+value may be over 100 MiB, whatever the limit.
+
 #### `secret add <secret-name> [--force]`
 
-Adds a secret to the current vault. Reads the secret value from stdin.
+Adds a secret to the current vault. Reads the secret value from stdin. When the
+value ends in a newline, that one newline is dropped, so
+`echo value | secret add name` stores `value`; from `printf 'a\n\n'` it stores
+`a` and one newline. To keep a file's final newline, as in a PEM key, use
+`secret import`, which stores the file's bytes unchanged.
 
 - `--force, -f`: Overwrite existing secret
 
@@ -142,7 +159,13 @@ contain `//`, or have `..` as a path segment.
 
 #### `secret get <secret-name> [--version <version>]`
 
-Retrieves and outputs a secret value to stdout.
+Writes the secret's value to stdout exactly as stored, with no newline added
+after it. A failed write of the value, such as to a file on a full disk, prints
+the error and exits 1, with two exceptions. If the program reading from a pipe
+has already exited, as in `secret get s | true`, the broken-pipe signal
+(SIGPIPE) ends `secret` with no message and the shell reports exit status 141.
+If the shell closed stdout before `secret` started (`secret get s >&-`), the
+value is written to `/dev/null` and `secret get` exits 0.
 
 - `--version, -v`: Get a specific version (default: current)
 
@@ -150,6 +173,13 @@ Retrieves and outputs a secret value to stdout.
 
 Lists all secrets in the current vault. Optional filter for substring matching.
 
+The `LAST UPDATED` column, and `updated_at` in the `--json` output, give the
+time the secret's `current` file was last written: every command that adds a
+version replaces it, and so does `secret version promote`. `created_at` gives
+the time the `value.age` of the secret's oldest version was written. Both are
+the files' modification times, so listing asks for no passphrase. Moving a
+secret to another vault keeps both times.
+
 #### `secret remove <secret-name> [--force]` / `secret rm` ⚠️ 🛑
 
 **DANGER**: Permanently removes a secret and ALL its versions. It first asks for
@@ -178,10 +208,18 @@ Moves or renames a secret within the current vault.
 Lists all versions of a secret showing creation time, status, and validity
 period.
 
+`STATUS` is `current` for the secret's current version, `expired` for another
+version whose `NOT_AFTER` has passed, and `inactive` for any other version.
+Adding a version sets `NOT_AFTER` on the version that was current;
+`secret version promote` sets no times. A version that is not current therefore
+shows `inactive` when no version was added while it was current.
+
 #### `secret version promote <secret-name> <version>`
 
 Promotes a specific version to current by rewriting the secret's `current` file
-to name it. Does not modify any timestamps, allowing for rollback scenarios.
+to name it. The versions' own times are left unchanged, allowing for rollback
+scenarios; `secret list` then gives the time of the promote as the secret's last
+update.
 
 #### `secret version remove <secret-name> <version> [--force]` / `secret version rm` ⚠️ 🛑
 
@@ -197,7 +235,8 @@ for confirmation, naming the version, the secret and its vault (see
 
 #### `secret generate mnemonic`
 
-Generates a cryptographically secure BIP39 mnemonic phrase.
+Generates a cryptographically secure BIP39 mnemonic phrase and prints it to
+stdout. The warning to keep it safe goes to stderr.
 
 #### `secret generate secret <name> [--length=16] [--type=base58] [--force]`
 
@@ -232,6 +271,12 @@ Creates a new unlocker of the specified type:
 A vault has one passphrase unlocker: adding one replaces the one the vault has,
 which is removed only once the new one is the current unlocker.
 
+`secret unlocker add passphrase` asks on the terminal for the new passphrase
+even when `SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE` is set, and uses the variable to unlock the
+vault. With no controlling terminal, as under cron or in a CI job, the new
+unlocker takes its passphrase from `SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE`, and the command says
+so.
+
 #### `secret unlocker remove <unlocker-id> [--force]` / `secret unlocker rm` ⚠️ 🛑
 
 **DANGER**: Permanently removes an unlocker. It first asks for confirmation,
@@ -241,6 +286,14 @@ that the vault then opens only with its mnemonic (see
 [Confirmation Before Removal](#confirmation-before-removal)). An unlocker
 directory that `secret unlocker list` skips with a warning, because its metadata
 cannot be read or parsed, is removed by the directory name the warning gives.
+Removing the current unlocker makes the first of the vault's other unlockers
+that `secret unlocker select` accepts, in the order `secret unlocker list` shows
+them, the current one, and says which; when there is none, the vault is left
+without a current unlocker. `secret unlocker select` refuses an unlocker whose
+type is not `passphrase` or `pgp`. When `current-unlocker` names an unlocker
+that does not exist and the vault has another that `secret unlocker select`
+accepts, opening the vault fails with an error that says to select one with
+`secret unlocker select`.
 
 - `--force, -f`: Remove without asking, even the last unlocker
 - **CRITICAL WARNING**: Without unlockers and without your mnemonic phrase,
@@ -257,14 +310,16 @@ Selects an unlocker as the current default for operations.
 #### `secret import <secret-name> --source <filename>`
 
 Imports a secret from a file and stores it in the current vault under the given
-name.
+name. The file's bytes are stored unchanged, a final newline included.
-
-#### `secret vault import [vault-name]`
-
-Imports a mnemonic phrase into the specified vault (defaults to "default").
 
 ### Encryption Operations
 
+With `--output`, `secret encrypt` and `secret decrypt` hold the result in memory
+and write it to `--output` only once encryption or decryption has succeeded, so
+a failure to encrypt or decrypt leaves `--output` untouched. A failure while
+writing `--output`, such as a full disk, can leave it empty or partly written.
+The command needs about as much memory as the result.
+
 #### `secret encrypt <secret-name> [--input=file] [--output=file]`
 
 Encrypts data using an Age key stored as a secret. If the secret doesn't exist,
@@ -368,9 +423,12 @@ line or in a CI job, they end up in shell history and CI logs. `secret` unsets
 each one as soon as it has read it, so that the programs it runs itself, such as
 `gpg`, do not inherit it, but that erases nothing: the environment the process
 started with, and its memory, still hold the value. The interactive prompt,
-which every command except `secret vault import` offers when the variable is not
+which every command offers when the variable is not set, is the safer default.
-set, is the safer default; `secret vault import` has no prompt and needs both
+
-variables.
+The prompt asks on the terminal the command runs in, not on stdin, so it also
+asks when stdin is a pipe, as in `echo value | secret add name --force` or
+`cat file | secret encrypt key`. With no controlling terminal, as under cron or
+in a CI job, the command fails and names the variable to set.
 
 ## Security Features
 
@@ -508,7 +566,11 @@ secret decrypt encryption/mykey --input document.txt.age --output document.txt
 ### Vault Management
 
 - **Derivation Index**: Each vault uses a unique derivation index from the
-  mnemonic, and thus a unique key pair
+  mnemonic, and thus a unique key pair; creating a vault (`secret init` and
+  `secret vault create`) fails, with an error naming the file, when any vault's
+  `vault-metadata.json` exists but cannot be read or parsed; a vault directory
+  with no `vault-metadata.json` is skipped, so the index it uses can be given to
+  a new vault
 - **Public Key Hash**: Double SHA-256 hash of the vault's public key; the same
   hash of the index-0 public key identifies vaults from the same mnemonic
 - **Automatic Key Derivation**: When creating vaults with a mnemonic, keys are

TODO.md

@@ -18,6 +18,53 @@ https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/milestone/12
 
 # Completed Steps
 
+- 2026-10-14: A wrong passphrase, from `SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE` or typed at the
+  prompt, gives the error `wrong passphrase for unlocker <id>`
+  (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/157). It used to be age's "no
+  identity matched any of the recipients", followed by advice to give the vault
+  a new unlocker from its mnemonic, which would have replaced an unlocker that
+  works. The error now wraps `secret.ErrWrongPassphrase` and carries no advice
+  to use the mnemonic. A `priv.age` that is not an age file still gets that
+  advice.
+- 2026-10-14: The passphrase and mnemonic prompts ask on the controlling
+  terminal (`/dev/tty`) instead of stdin, so `echo v | secret add s1 --force`,
+  `cat file | secret encrypt key` and `cat file.age | secret decrypt key` ask
+  for the passphrase at a terminal instead of failing
+  (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/144). Only a process with no
+  controlling terminal gets the error that names the variable to set. On SIGINT
+  or SIGTERM, `Entry()` restores the settings of that terminal, not of stdin,
+  since that is where the prompt turns echo off. `secret init` and
+  `secret vault create` no longer write a newline to stderr after the mnemonic
+  is typed, since the prompt ends that line on the terminal.
+- 2026-10-14: `secret generate mnemonic`, `secret vault list` and
+  `secret unlocker list` print their output to stdout, as `secret list` does, so
+  it can be piped or captured (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/138).
+  They printed with cobra's `cmd.Println` and `cmd.Printf`, which write to
+  stderr when no output writer is set, so `secret vault list --json | jq`
+  received nothing. "No versions found" from `secret version list` moved to
+  stdout too. Messages such as "Created vault", and the warning after the
+  mnemonic, stay on stderr.
+- 2026-10-14: Removing the current unlocker no longer leaves the vault unable to
+  open through the unlockers it still has
+  (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/137). `current-unlocker` went on
+  naming the removed unlocker, so every command that opened the vault failed,
+  with advice to use the mnemonic. `secret unlocker remove` of the current
+  unlocker now makes the first of the vault's other unlockers that
+  `secret unlocker select` accepts, in the order `secret unlocker list` shows,
+  current before removing it, and says so; when there is none, it also removes
+  `current-unlocker`. `vault.RemoveUnlocker` returns the ID of the unlocker it
+  made current. When `current-unlocker` names an unlocker that does not exist
+  and the vault has another that `secret unlocker select` accepts, the error
+  wraps `vault.ErrUnlockerNotFound` and says to run `secret unlocker select`,
+  without the advice to use the mnemonic.
+- 2026-10-14: A `secret add --force` that cannot unlock the vault, given a wrong
+  passphrase or mnemonic, leaves the secret as it was
+  (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/136). The new version used to be
+  written before the vault was unlocked to set `notAfter` on the version it
+  replaces, so each failed add left one more version that `secret version list`
+  showed. The vault is now unlocked, and that version's metadata read, before
+  anything is written. `generate secret --force` and `import --force` take the
+  same path.
 - 2026-10-12: A mnemonic typed with extra spaces, tabs or line breaks gives the
   same long-term key as its words separated by single spaces
   (https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/135). The key was derived from the

internal/cli/create_vault_test.go

@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"os/exec"
 	"slices"
 	"strings"
+	"syscall"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
@@ -140,6 +141,25 @@ func TestVaultCreationLeavesNoSecretInEnvironment(t *testing.T) {
 	run("vault", "create", "work")
 }
 
+// TestNoVaultImportCommand is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/139: `secret vault import`
+// refused every vault that `secret vault create` makes, because each has a
+// long-term key. The command is gone, so it fails as any subcommand of
+// `secret vault` that does not exist does.
+func TestNoVaultImportCommand(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Setenv(secret.EnvStateDir, t.TempDir())
+	t.Setenv(secret.EnvMnemonic, testMnemonic)
+	t.Setenv(secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase, testPassphrase)
+
+	_, err := cli.ExecuteCommandInProcess(
+		strings.Fields("vault create work"), "", nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	_, err = cli.ExecuteCommandInProcess(
+		strings.Fields("vault import work"), "", nil)
+	require.EqualError(t, err, `unknown command "import" for "secret vault"`)
+}
+
 // TestStopAtPassphrasePromptLeavesNothing is a regression test for the
 // review of https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/pulls/82: `secret init` or
 // `secret vault create` stopped at the passphrase prompt left a vault with
@@ -197,10 +217,10 @@ func TestStopAtPassphrasePromptLeavesNothing(t *testing.T) {
 
 // TestMnemonicNotReadNamesOnlyMnemonic is a regression test for
 // https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/115: `secret init` without
-// SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC and with a stdin that is not a terminal said "failed to
+// SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC and with no terminal said "failed to read mnemonic:
-// read mnemonic: failed to read passphrase: ...". The error must wrap
+// failed to read passphrase: ...". The error must wrap
 // secret.ErrMnemonicNotRead and name the mnemonic only. The message is
-// pinned on the built binary, whose stdin is surely not a terminal.
+// pinned on the built binary, run in a new session, which has no terminal.
 func TestMnemonicNotReadNamesOnlyMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
@@ -216,14 +236,54 @@ func TestMnemonicNotReadNamesOnlyMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
 		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
 		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
 	}
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true}
 
 	output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
 	require.Error(t, err)
 
-	require.Equal(t, "Initialized secrets manager at: "+stateDir+"\n"+
+	require.Equal(t, "Error: failed to read mnemonic: there is no terminal to "+
-		"Error: failed to read mnemonic: stdin is not a terminal (piped input "+
+		"ask on. Please set the SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC environment variable or run "+
-		"or script). Please set the SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC environment variable "+
+		"interactively\n", string(output))
-		"or run interactively\n", string(output))
+}
+
+// TestCreateExistingVaultAsksForNothing is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/151: `secret init` and `secret
+// vault create` asked for the mnemonic and the unlocker passphrase before
+// refusing a vault that already exists, and `secret init` printed
+// "Initialized secrets manager at" first. Each runs here as the built binary,
+// in a new session, which has no terminal, and with neither
+// SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC nor SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE set, so asking for either
+// fails. Each must fail saying only that the vault exists.
+func TestCreateExistingVaultAsksForNothing(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(afero.NewOsFs(), stateDir, "default", nil, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// run runs the built binary with args, which must fail, and returns what
+	// it printed
+	run := func(args ...string) string {
+		//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+		cmd := exec.CommandContext(t.Context(), secretBinaryPath(t), args...)
+		cmd.Env = []string{
+			secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+			"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
+			"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
+		}
+		cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true}
+
+		output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
+		require.Error(t, err, "secret %v", args)
+
+		return string(output)
+	}
+
+	require.Equal(t,
+		"Error: failed to create default vault: vault default already exists\n",
+		run("init"))
+	require.Equal(t, "Error: vault default already exists\n",
+		run("vault", "create", "default"))
 }
 
 // TestStopDuringCreateLeavesWholeVaultOrNone is a regression test for

internal/cli/crypto.go

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package cli
 
 import (
+	"bytes"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
@@ -107,8 +108,8 @@ func (cli *Instance) storeNewEncryptionKey(
 // does not exist. The caller must destroy the returned buffer. Only storing
 // a new key takes the state directory lock, so that reading an existing key
 // works on a read-only state directory and keeps no other command waiting
-// at the passphrase prompt, and Encrypt streams its input and output
+// at the passphrase prompt, and Encrypt reads its input and writes its
-// unlocked.
+// output without the lock.
 func (cli *Instance) resolveEncryptionKey(
 	vlt *vault.Vault, secretName string,
 ) (*memguard.LockedBuffer, error) {
@@ -188,17 +189,17 @@ func (cli *Instance) Encrypt(secretName, inputFile, outputFile string) error {
 		input = file
 	}
 
-	// Set up output writer
+	// Set up output writer. With --output the result is held in memory
+	// and written only once encryption has succeeded, so a failure to
+	// encrypt leaves --output untouched and --input can be the same file.
+	// A failure while writing --output, such as a full disk, can leave it
+	// empty or partly written.
 	output := cli.cmd.OutOrStdout()
 
-	if outputFile != "" {
+	var result bytes.Buffer
-		file, err := cli.fs.Create(outputFile)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("failed to create output file: %w", err)
-		}
-		defer func() { _ = file.Close() }()
 
-		output = file
+	if outputFile != "" {
+		output = &result
 	}
 
 	// Encrypt the data
@@ -217,7 +218,11 @@ func (cli *Instance) Encrypt(secretName, inputFile, outputFile string) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to finalize encryption: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	return nil
+	if outputFile == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	return cli.writeOutputFile(outputFile, result.Bytes())
 }
 
 // Decrypt decrypts data using an age secret key stored in a secret
@@ -278,17 +283,17 @@ func (cli *Instance) Decrypt(secretName, inputFile, outputFile string) error {
 		input = file
 	}
 
-	// Set up output writer
+	// Set up output writer. With --output the result is held in memory
+	// and written only once decryption has succeeded, so a failure to
+	// decrypt leaves --output untouched and --input can be the same file.
+	// A failure while writing --output, such as a full disk, can leave it
+	// empty or partly written.
 	output := cli.cmd.OutOrStdout()
 
-	if outputFile != "" {
+	var result bytes.Buffer
-		file, err := cli.fs.Create(outputFile)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("failed to create output file: %w", err)
-		}
-		defer func() { _ = file.Close() }()
 
-		output = file
+	if outputFile != "" {
+		output = &result
 	}
 
 	// Decrypt the data
@@ -302,6 +307,32 @@ func (cli *Instance) Decrypt(secretName, inputFile, outputFile string) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to decrypt data: %w", err)
 	}
 
+	if outputFile == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	return cli.writeOutputFile(outputFile, result.Bytes())
+}
+
+// writeOutputFile creates outputFile, or empties it if it exists, and
+// writes result into it.
+func (cli *Instance) writeOutputFile(outputFile string, result []byte) error {
+	file, err := cli.fs.Create(outputFile)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create output file: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	_, err = file.Write(result)
+
+	closeErr := file.Close()
+	if err == nil {
+		err = closeErr
+	}
+
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to write output file: %w", err)
+	}
+
 	return nil
 }
 

internal/cli/crypto_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+//nolint:testpackage // sets the unexported fields of Instance
+package cli
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
+)
+
+// plainText is the content of plain.txt in the directory newCryptoTest makes.
+const plainText = "document"
+
+// newCryptoTest returns an Instance whose current vault, in a new state
+// directory on the real filesystem, holds the age key secret "key", and a
+// new directory holding only plain.txt and plain.txt.age, its encryption
+// with that key.
+func newCryptoTest(t *testing.T) (*Instance, string) {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, stateDir, "default", testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	cli := NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, stateDir)
+	cli.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+	cli.cmd = &cobra.Command{}
+
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	plain := filepath.Join(dir, "plain.txt")
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs, plain, []byte(plainText), 0o600))
+	require.NoError(t, cli.Encrypt("key", plain, plain+".age"))
+
+	return cli, dir
+}
+
+// TestFailedCryptoLeavesOutputUnchanged is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/143, where secret encrypt and
+// secret decrypt emptied the file named by --output before they failed.
+// A failure to encrypt or decrypt must leave an existing file as it was and
+// create none, and give the same error as without --output.
+func TestFailedCryptoLeavesOutputUnchanged(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name string
+		run  func(cli *Instance, dir, output string) error
+	}{
+		// Reading a directory fails once encryption has begun
+		{"encrypt", func(cli *Instance, dir, output string) error {
+			return cli.Encrypt("key", dir, output)
+		}},
+		// plain.txt is not an age file
+		{"decrypt", func(cli *Instance, dir, output string) error {
+			return cli.Decrypt("key", filepath.Join(dir, "plain.txt"), output)
+		}},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			t.Parallel()
+
+			cli, dir := newCryptoTest(t)
+			existing := filepath.Join(dir, "existing.txt")
+			require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(cli.fs, existing, []byte("precious"), 0o600))
+
+			cli.cmd.SetOut(io.Discard)
+			toStdout := tt.run(cli, dir, "")
+			require.Error(t, toStdout)
+
+			require.EqualError(t, tt.run(cli, dir, existing), toStdout.Error())
+			require.EqualError(t, tt.run(cli, dir, filepath.Join(dir, "new.txt")),
+				toStdout.Error())
+
+			content, err := afero.ReadFile(cli.fs, existing)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.Equal(t, "precious", string(content))
+
+			exists, err := afero.Exists(cli.fs, filepath.Join(dir, "new.txt"))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.False(t, exists, "a failed %s created --output", tt.name)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+// TestCryptoInPlace checks that secret encrypt and secret decrypt given
+// one file as both --input and --output replace it with the right result.
+// Before https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/143 they emptied the file
+// before reading it.
+func TestCryptoInPlace(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	cli, dir := newCryptoTest(t)
+	file := filepath.Join(dir, "plain.txt")
+
+	require.NoError(t, cli.Encrypt("key", file, file))
+	require.NoError(t, cli.Decrypt("key", file, file))
+
+	content, err := afero.ReadFile(cli.fs, file)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, plainText, string(content))
+}
+
+// errCloseFailed is returned by the files closeFailFs creates in place of
+// a successful Close, as NFS reports a full disk only when the file is
+// closed.
+var errCloseFailed = errors.New("no space left on device")
+
+// closeFailFs creates files whose Close fails with errCloseFailed.
+type closeFailFs struct {
+	afero.Fs
+}
+
+// closeFailFile is a file created through closeFailFs.
+type closeFailFile struct {
+	afero.File
+}
+
+func (f closeFailFile) Close() error {
+	_ = f.File.Close()
+
+	return errCloseFailed
+}
+
+//nolint:ireturn // afero.File is the interface required by afero.Fs
+func (f closeFailFs) Create(name string) (afero.File, error) {
+	file, err := f.Fs.Create(name)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return closeFailFile{File: file}, nil
+}
+
+// TestDecryptFailsWhenClosingOutputFails checks that secret decrypt fails
+// when closing --output fails, since some filesystems report a failed
+// write only then.
+func TestDecryptFailsWhenClosingOutputFails(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	cli, dir := newCryptoTest(t)
+	cli.fs = closeFailFs{Fs: cli.fs}
+
+	err := cli.Decrypt("key", filepath.Join(dir, "plain.txt.age"),
+		filepath.Join(dir, "out.txt"))
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, errCloseFailed)
+}
+
+// TestDecryptToDescriptorOfDeletedFile checks that secret decrypt given
+// /dev/fd/N as --output writes through that descriptor. A program may give
+// the command a temporary file it has already deleted as stdout, pass
+// /dev/stdout as --output and read the result back from that file.
+func TestDecryptToDescriptorOfDeletedFile(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	cli, dir := newCryptoTest(t)
+
+	file, err := os.CreateTemp(t.TempDir(), "out")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer func() { _ = file.Close() }()
+
+	require.NoError(t, os.Remove(file.Name()))
+
+	output := fmt.Sprintf("/dev/fd/%d", file.Fd())
+	require.NoError(t, cli.Decrypt("key", filepath.Join(dir, "plain.txt.age"), output))
+
+	// On macOS the command's open of /dev/fd/N shares this descriptor's
+	// position, which its write leaves at the end.
+	_, err = file.Seek(0, io.SeekStart)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	content, err := io.ReadAll(file)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, plainText, string(content))
+}

internal/cli/generate.go

@@ -29,6 +29,12 @@ func newGenerateCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Use:   "generate",
 		Short: "Generate random data",
 		Long:  `Generate various types of random data including mnemonics and secrets.`,
+		// Cobra checks Args only on a command that has a RunE; without
+		// one, an unknown subcommand prints this help and exits 0.
+		Args: cobra.NoArgs,
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
+			return cmd.Help()
+		},
 	}
 
 	cmd.AddCommand(newGenerateMnemonicCmd())
@@ -43,7 +49,7 @@ func newGenerateMnemonicCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Short: "Generate a random BIP39 mnemonic phrase",
 		Long: `Generate a cryptographically secure random BIP39 ` +
 			`mnemonic phrase that can be used with 'secret init' ` +
-			`or 'secret import'.`,
+			`or 'secret vault create'.`,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
 			cli, err := NewCLIInstance()
 			if err != nil {
@@ -72,6 +78,12 @@ func newGenerateSecretCmd() *cobra.Command {
 				return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize CLI: %w", err)
 			}
 
+			// Before readSecretEnv, which makes the first locked allocation
+			err = checkLockedMemoryLimit(0)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
 			destroySecrets := cli.readSecretEnv()
 			defer destroySecrets()
 
@@ -103,7 +115,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) GenerateMnemonic(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 	}
 
 	// Output mnemonic to stdout
-	cmd.Println(mnemonic)
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(cmd.OutOrStdout(), mnemonic)
 
 	// Output helpful information to stderr
 	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "")
@@ -115,8 +127,10 @@ func (cli *Instance) GenerateMnemonic(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 		"   • If you lose this phrase, your secrets cannot be recovered")
 	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "")
 	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "Use this mnemonic with:")
-	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "   secret init    (to initialize a new secret manager)")
+	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr,
-	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "   secret import  (to import into an existing vault)")
+		"   secret init                (to initialize a new secret manager)")
+	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr,
+		"   secret vault create <name> (to create another vault)")
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -133,10 +147,16 @@ func (cli *Instance) GenerateSecret(
 		return errLengthTooSmall
 	}
 
-	var (
+	if length > maxSecretSize {
-		secretValue string
+		return errSecretTooLarge
-		err         error
+	}
-	)
+
+	err := checkLockedMemoryLimit(length)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	var secretValue string
 
 	switch secretType {
 	case "base58":

internal/cli/info_helper.go

@@ -18,24 +18,23 @@ type vaultStats struct {
 
 // addVersion accumulates size and timestamp info for one version directory
 func (s *vaultStats) addVersion(fs afero.Fs, versionPath string) {
-	// Add size of encrypted data
+	// Add the size of every file in the version directory: its value,
-	dataPath := filepath.Join(versionPath, "data.age")
+	// metadata and keys. A directory that cannot be read adds nothing and
-
+	// gets a warning; its timestamp is still tracked below.
-	stat, err := fs.Stat(dataPath)
+	files, err := afero.ReadDir(fs, versionPath)
-	if err == nil {
+	if err != nil {
-		s.totalSize += stat.Size()
+		secret.Warn("Could not read version directory",
+			"directory", versionPath, "error", err)
 	}
 
-	// Add size of metadata
+	for _, file := range files {
-	metaPath := filepath.Join(versionPath, "metadata.age")
+		if !file.IsDir() {
-
+			s.totalSize += file.Size()
-	stat, err = fs.Stat(metaPath)
+		}
-	if err == nil {
-		s.totalSize += stat.Size()
 	}
 
 	// Track timestamps
-	stat, err = fs.Stat(versionPath)
+	stat, err := fs.Stat(versionPath)
 	if err == nil {
 		modTime := stat.ModTime()
 		if s.oldestTime.IsZero() || modTime.Before(s.oldestTime) {

internal/cli/info_helper_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+//nolint:testpackage // white-box test of unexported internals
+package cli
+
+import (
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+// TestAddVersionWarnsWhenVersionDirUnreadable asserts that a version
+// directory that cannot be listed, so that its files are left out of the
+// total size, gets a warning naming it and the error, and that its
+// timestamp is still tracked.
+//
+//nolint:paralleltest // replaces os.Stderr, where secret.Warn writes
+func TestAddVersionWarnsWhenVersionDirUnreadable(t *testing.T) {
+	versionDir := filepath.Join(testVaultDir(listTestVaultName),
+		unreadableTestSecretsDirName, unreadableTestSecretName,
+		"versions", "20260809.001")
+
+	base := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	require.NoError(t, base.MkdirAll(versionDir, listTestDirPerm))
+
+	stderrReader, stderrWriter, err := os.Pipe()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer func() { _ = stderrReader.Close() }()
+
+	realStderr := os.Stderr
+	os.Stderr = stderrWriter
+
+	var stats vaultStats
+	stats.addVersion(&openFailFs{Fs: base, path: versionDir}, versionDir)
+
+	os.Stderr = realStderr
+
+	require.NoError(t, stderrWriter.Close())
+
+	warning, err := io.ReadAll(stderrReader)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	assert.Contains(t, string(warning), versionDir)
+	assert.Contains(t, string(warning), errOpenFailed.Error())
+	assert.False(t, stats.latestTime.IsZero(),
+		"the timestamp must still be tracked")
+}

internal/cli/info_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package cli_test
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"crypto/rand"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/cli"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
+)
+
+// TestInfoTotalSizeCountsSecretValues is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/147, where the total size shown by
+// `secret info` left out every secret's value. Adding a secret must make it
+// grow by at least the size of the value.
+func TestInfoTotalSizeCountsSecretValues(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	const valueSize = 10000
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "default",
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	before := infoTotalSize(t, fs)
+
+	valueBytes := make([]byte, valueSize)
+	_, err = rand.Read(valueBytes)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	value := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes(valueBytes)
+	defer value.Destroy()
+
+	require.NoError(t, vlt.AddSecret("s1", value, false))
+
+	after := infoTotalSize(t, fs)
+	require.GreaterOrEqual(t, after-before, int64(valueSize))
+}
+
+// infoTotalSize returns the total size that `secret info --json` reports for
+// the state directory on fs.
+func infoTotalSize(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs) int64 {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	var out bytes.Buffer
+
+	cmd := &cobra.Command{}
+	cmd.SetOut(&out)
+
+	err := cli.NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, testStateDir).Info(cmd, true)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	var info cli.InfoOutput
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(out.Bytes(), &info))
+
+	return info.TotalSize
+}

internal/cli/init.go

@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"log"
 	"log/slog"
-	"os"
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
@@ -18,6 +17,9 @@ import (
 // errPassphraseMismatch is returned when passphrase confirmation fails
 var errPassphraseMismatch = errors.New("passphrases do not match")
 
+// defaultVaultName is the name of the vault `secret init` creates
+const defaultVaultName = "default"
+
 // NewInitCmd creates the init command
 func NewInitCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	return &cobra.Command{
@@ -57,13 +59,11 @@ func (cli *Instance) promptMnemonic() (*memguard.LockedBuffer, func(), error) {
 	// Read mnemonic securely without echo
 	mnemonicBuffer, err := secret.ReadMnemonic("Enter your BIP39 mnemonic phrase: ")
 	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to read mnemonic from stdin", "error", err)
+		secret.Debug("Failed to read mnemonic", "error", err)
 
 		return nil, nil, err
 	}
 
-	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr) // Add newline after hidden input
-
 	return mnemonicBuffer, mnemonicBuffer.Destroy, nil
 }
 
@@ -95,8 +95,10 @@ func (cli *Instance) initialize(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create state directory: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	if cmd != nil {
+	// Refuse an existing default vault before asking for anything
-		cmd.Printf("Initialized secrets manager at: %s\n", stateDir)
+	err = vault.CheckNewVaultName(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, defaultVaultName)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create default vault: %w", err)
 	}
 
 	// Prompt for mnemonic
@@ -136,7 +138,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) initialize(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 	// Create the default vault with its passphrase unlocker
 	secret.Debug("Creating default vault")
 
-	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, "default",
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, defaultVaultName,
 		mnemonic, passphraseBuffer)
 	if err != nil {
 		secret.Debug("Failed to create default vault", "error", err)
@@ -155,6 +157,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) initialize(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 	}
 
 	if cmd != nil {
+		cmd.Printf("Initialized secrets manager at: %s\n", stateDir)
 		cmd.Printf("\nDefault vault created and configured\n")
 		cmd.Printf("Long-term public key: %s\n", ltIdentity.Recipient().String())
 		cmd.Printf("Unlocker ID: %s\n", unlocker.GetID())

internal/cli/input_errors_test.go

@@ -7,12 +7,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
-	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
 )
 
 // TestInvalidMnemonicError checks that every command that takes a mnemonic
-// returns errInvalidMnemonicPhrase for one that is not valid BIP39. The vault
+// returns errInvalidMnemonicPhrase for one that is not valid BIP39.
-// "other" has no long-term key, as vault import needs.
 func TestInvalidMnemonicError(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
@@ -24,20 +22,13 @@ func TestInvalidMnemonicError(t *testing.T) {
 		{"secret vault create work", func(c *Instance) error {
 			return c.CreateVault(c.cmd, "work")
 		}},
-		{"secret vault import other", func(c *Instance) error {
-			return c.VaultImport(c.cmd, "other")
-		}},
 	}
 
 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.command, func(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Parallel()
 
-			fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+			instance, _ := newTestInstance(afero.NewMemMapFs())
-			_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, listTestStateDir, "other", nil, nil)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			instance, _ := newTestInstance(fs)
 			instance.Mnemonic = memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("not a mnemonic"))
 			t.Cleanup(instance.Mnemonic.Destroy)
 

internal/cli/integration_test.go

@@ -140,16 +140,6 @@ func TestSecretManagerIntegration(t *testing.T) {
 	//   - currentvault symlink updated to point to work
 	test03CreateVault(t, tempDir, runSecret)
 
-	// Test 4: Import mnemonic into work vault
-	// Command: secret vault import work
-	// Purpose: Import mnemonic with passphrase unlocker
-	// Expected filesystem:
-	//   - work vault has pub.age file
-	//   - work vault has unlockers.d/passphrase directory
-	//   - Unlocker metadata and encrypted keys present
-	// NOTE: Skipped because vault creation now includes mnemonic import
-	// test04ImportMnemonic(t, tempDir, testMnemonic, testPassphrase, runSecretWithEnv)
-
 	// Test 5: Add secrets with versioning
 	// Command: echo "password123" | secret add database/password
 	// Purpose: Add a secret and verify versioned storage
@@ -535,65 +525,6 @@ func test03CreateVault(t *testing.T, tempDir string, runSecret func(...string) (
 	assert.Contains(t, output, "work", "should list work vault")
 }
 
-//nolint:unused // TODO: re-enable when vault import is implemented
-func test04ImportMnemonic(t *testing.T, tempDir, testMnemonic, testPassphrase string, runSecretWithEnv func(map[string]string, ...string) (string, error)) {
-	t.Helper()
-
-	// Import mnemonic into work vault
-	output, err := runSecretWithEnv(map[string]string{
-		secret.EnvMnemonic:         testMnemonic,
-		secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase: testPassphrase,
-	}, "vault", "import", "work")
-
-	require.NoError(t, err, "vault import should succeed")
-	assert.Contains(t, output, "Successfully imported mnemonic into vault 'work'", "should confirm import")
-
-	// Verify work vault now has long-term key
-	workVaultDir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "vaults.d", "work")
-	pubKeyFile := filepath.Join(workVaultDir, "pub.age")
-	verifyFileExists(t, pubKeyFile)
-
-	// Verify passphrase unlocker was created
-	currentUnlocker := readFile(t, filepath.Join(workVaultDir, "current-unlocker"))
-	passphraseUnlockerDir := filepath.Join(workVaultDir, "unlockers.d", string(currentUnlocker))
-	verifyFileExists(t, passphraseUnlockerDir)
-
-	// Check unlocker files
-	unlockerMetadata := filepath.Join(passphraseUnlockerDir, "unlocker-metadata.json")
-	verifyFileExists(t, unlockerMetadata)
-
-	encryptedLTPrivKey := filepath.Join(passphraseUnlockerDir, "priv.age")
-	verifyFileExists(t, encryptedLTPrivKey)
-
-	encryptedLTPubKey := filepath.Join(passphraseUnlockerDir, "pub.age")
-	verifyFileExists(t, encryptedLTPubKey)
-
-	longtermKeyFile := filepath.Join(passphraseUnlockerDir, "longterm.age")
-	verifyFileExists(t, longtermKeyFile)
-
-	// Verify vault metadata was created with derivation index
-	vaultMetadata := filepath.Join(workVaultDir, "vault-metadata.json")
-	verifyFileExists(t, vaultMetadata)
-
-	metadataBytes := readFile(t, vaultMetadata)
-
-	var metadata map[string]any
-
-	err = json.Unmarshal(metadataBytes, &metadata)
-	require.NoError(t, err, "vault metadata should be valid JSON")
-
-	// Work vault should have a different derivation index than default (0)
-	derivIndex, ok := metadata["derivationIndex"].(float64)
-	require.True(t, ok, "derivationIndex should be a number")
-	assert.NotEqual(t, float64(0), derivIndex, "work vault should have non-zero derivation index")
-
-	// Verify public key hash is stored
-	assert.Contains(t, metadata, "publicKeyHash", "should contain public key hash")
-	pubKeyHash, ok := metadata["publicKeyHash"].(string)
-	require.True(t, ok, "publicKeyHash should be a string")
-	assert.NotEmpty(t, pubKeyHash, "public key hash should not be empty")
-}
-
 func test05AddSecret(t *testing.T, tempDir, testMnemonic string, runSecret func(...string) (string, error), runSecretWithEnv func(map[string]string, ...string) (string, error), runSecretWithStdin func(string, map[string]string, ...string) (string, error)) {
 	t.Helper()
 
@@ -1939,14 +1870,6 @@ func test23ErrorHandling(t *testing.T, tempDir, secretPath, testMnemonic string,
 	_, err = runSecret("vault", "select", "nonexistent")
 	require.ErrorIs(t, err, vault.ErrVaultNotFound, "select non-existent vault should fail")
 
-	// Import to non-existent vault with test passphrase
-	testPassphrase := "test-passphrase-123" // Define testPassphrase locally
-	_, err = runSecretWithEnv(map[string]string{
-		secret.EnvMnemonic:         testMnemonic,
-		secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase: testPassphrase,
-	}, "vault", "import", "nonexistent")
-	require.ErrorIs(t, err, vault.ErrVaultNotFound, "import to non-existent vault should fail")
-
 	// Get specific version that doesn't exist
 	_, err = runSecretWithEnv(map[string]string{
 		secret.EnvMnemonic: testMnemonic,

internal/cli/list_times_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+package cli_test
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/cli"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
+)
+
+const (
+	// listClockStep is how long TestListShowsWhenSecretWasWritten waits
+	// between its steps, so that a time read in one step cannot be the
+	// time read in the next.
+	listClockStep = 200 * time.Millisecond
+
+	// fileTimeSlack allows for the clock the kernel stamps files with,
+	// which advances only every few milliseconds: a file's modification
+	// time can be slightly earlier than a time.Now() read before the file
+	// was written.
+	fileTimeSlack = 100 * time.Millisecond
+)
+
+// TestListShowsWhenSecretWasWritten is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/142, where `secret list` gave
+// the time of the listing as every secret's creation and last-update time.
+// Two listings with a clock step between must be the same, and give the
+// time of the add; after a forced add, the creation time is unchanged and
+// the last update is the time of that add. It runs on a real filesystem,
+// where writing a file into a directory also changes the directory's time.
+func TestListShowsWhenSecretWasWritten(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, stateDir, "default", testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	vlt.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+	c := cli.NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, stateDir)
+
+	beforeAdd := time.Now()
+	err = vlt.AddSecret("x", memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("one")), false)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	afterAdd := time.Now()
+
+	firstListing := listSecrets(t, c, true)
+
+	time.Sleep(listClockStep)
+	require.Equal(t, firstListing, listSecrets(t, c, true))
+
+	added := listedTimes(t, firstListing)
+	assert.WithinRange(t, added.CreatedAt, beforeAdd.Add(-fileTimeSlack), afterAdd)
+	assert.WithinRange(t, added.UpdatedAt, beforeAdd.Add(-fileTimeSlack), afterAdd)
+
+	time.Sleep(listClockStep)
+
+	beforeUpdate := time.Now()
+	err = vlt.AddSecret("x", memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("two")), true)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	afterUpdate := time.Now()
+
+	updated := listedTimes(t, listSecrets(t, c, true))
+	assert.True(t, added.CreatedAt.Equal(updated.CreatedAt),
+		"created %s, then %s", added.CreatedAt, updated.CreatedAt)
+	assert.WithinRange(t, updated.UpdatedAt,
+		beforeUpdate.Add(-fileTimeSlack), afterUpdate)
+
+	// The table's LAST UPDATED column gives the same time, to the minute
+	assert.Contains(t, listSecrets(t, c, false),
+		updated.UpdatedAt.Format("2006-01-02 15:04"))
+}
+
+// TestMovedSecretKeepsItsTimes checks that a secret moved to another vault
+// is listed there with the times it was listed with before the move, and
+// not with the time of the move.
+func TestMovedSecretKeepsItsTimes(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, stateDir, "other", testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// "default" is created last, so it is the current vault
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, stateDir, "default", testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	vlt.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+
+	// Two versions written apart, so that the creation and the last update
+	// are different times
+	err = vlt.AddSecret("x", memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("one")), false)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	time.Sleep(listClockStep)
+
+	err = vlt.AddSecret("x", memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("two")), true)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	c := cli.NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, stateDir)
+	c.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+	beforeMove := listedTimes(t, listSecrets(t, c, true))
+
+	time.Sleep(listClockStep)
+	require.NoError(t, c.MoveSecret(&cobra.Command{}, "default:x", "other", false))
+	require.NoError(t, vault.SelectVault(fs, stateDir, "other"))
+
+	afterMove := listedTimes(t, listSecrets(t, c, true))
+	assert.True(t, beforeMove.CreatedAt.Equal(afterMove.CreatedAt),
+		"created %s, then %s", beforeMove.CreatedAt, afterMove.CreatedAt)
+	assert.True(t, beforeMove.UpdatedAt.Equal(afterMove.UpdatedAt),
+		"updated %s, then %s", beforeMove.UpdatedAt, afterMove.UpdatedAt)
+}
+
+// listSecrets returns the output of `secret list`, or of
+// `secret list --json` when jsonOutput is set.
+func listSecrets(t *testing.T, c *cli.Instance, jsonOutput bool) string {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	var out bytes.Buffer
+
+	cmd := &cobra.Command{}
+	cmd.SetOut(&out)
+	require.NoError(t, c.ListSecrets(cmd, jsonOutput, false, ""))
+
+	return out.String()
+}
+
+// listedTimes returns the times that the output of `secret list --json`
+// gives for the one secret in the vault.
+func listedTimes(t *testing.T, listing string) secret.Metadata {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	var parsed struct {
+		Secrets []map[string]string `json:"secrets"`
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal([]byte(listing), &parsed))
+	require.Len(t, parsed.Secrets, 1)
+
+	createdAt, err := time.Parse(time.RFC3339Nano, parsed.Secrets[0]["created_at"])
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	updatedAt, err := time.Parse(time.RFC3339Nano, parsed.Secrets[0]["updated_at"])
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	return secret.Metadata{CreatedAt: createdAt, UpdatedAt: updatedAt}
+}

internal/cli/lock_test.go

@@ -282,11 +282,10 @@ func stateDirModTimes(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs) map[string]int64 {
 
 // setupEveryCommand makes what each command in
 // TestChangingCommandsWaitForLock needs: the current vault "work" with two
-// versions of "test/secret", the vault "other" without a long-term key, for
+// versions of "test/secret", the vault "other", and the file testInput.
-// vault import, and the file testInput. There is no vault "default", which
+// There is no vault "default", which init creates. If withUnlocker is set,
-// init creates. If withUnlocker is set, it also gives "work" a passphrase
+// it also gives "work" a passphrase unlocker, which is slow. It returns the
-// unlocker, which is slow. It returns the older version and the unlocker's
+// older version and the unlocker's ID.
-// ID.
 func setupEveryCommand(
 	t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs, withUnlocker bool,
 ) (string, string) {
@@ -294,13 +293,9 @@ func setupEveryCommand(
 
 	mnemonic := testMnemonicBuffer(t)
 
-	other, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "other", mnemonic, nil)
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "other", mnemonic, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	otherDir, err := other.GetDirectory()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	require.NoError(t, fs.Remove(filepath.Join(otherDir, "pub.age")))
-
 	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "work", mnemonic, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
@@ -455,9 +450,6 @@ func TestChangingCommandsWaitForLock(t *testing.T) {
 		{"vault select", false, func(cli *Instance, _, _ string) error {
 			return cli.SelectVault(cli.cmd, "other")
 		}},
-		{"vault import", false, func(cli *Instance, _, _ string) error {
-			return cli.VaultImport(cli.cmd, "other")
-		}},
 		{"vault rm --force", false, func(cli *Instance, _, _ string) error {
 			return cli.RemoveVault(cli.cmd, "other", true)
 		}},

internal/cli/passphrase_prompt_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,346 @@
+package cli_test
+
+import (
+	"bufio"
+	"bytes"
+	"context"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"strings"
+	"syscall"
+	"testing"
+
+	"filippo.io/age"
+	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
+	"github.com/creack/pty"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
+)
+
+// TestPassphraseAskedAtTerminalWithPipedStdin is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/144: run at a terminal with stdin
+// a pipe, as in `echo v2 | secret add s1 --force`, a command that needed
+// the passphrase failed instead of asking for it. Each command here must ask
+// on the terminal and succeed once the passphrase is typed there.
+func TestPassphraseAskedAtTerminalWithPipedStdin(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+	defer passphrase.Destroy()
+
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(afero.NewOsFs(), stateDir, "default",
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), passphrase)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	value := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("v1"))
+	defer value.Destroy()
+
+	require.NoError(t, vlt.AddSecret("s1", value, false))
+
+	identity, err := age.GenerateX25519Identity()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	key := secret.IdentityToLockedBuffer(identity)
+	defer key.Destroy()
+
+	require.NoError(t, vlt.AddSecret("mykey", key, false))
+
+	runAtTerminal(t, stateDir, "v2\n", "add", "s1", "--force")
+
+	vlt.UnlockPassphrase = passphrase
+
+	added, err := vlt.GetSecret("s1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer added.Destroy()
+
+	assert.Equal(t, "v2", added.String())
+
+	encrypted := runAtTerminal(t, stateDir, "a document\n", "encrypt", "mykey")
+	decrypted := runAtTerminal(t, stateDir, encrypted, "decrypt", "mykey")
+	assert.Equal(t, "a document\n", decrypted)
+}
+
+// TestInitWritesNoBlankLineAfterMnemonic runs `secret init 2>log` at a
+// terminal: the terminal is its controlling terminal and none of stdin,
+// stdout and stderr. The mnemonic is typed on the terminal and the prompt
+// ends its line there, so stderr must not get a newline for it as well, a
+// blank line in the log. pty.Open is described above
+// TestRemoveIgnoresTerminalOnStdout.
+func TestInitWritesNoBlankLineAfterMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), commandWait)
+	defer cancel()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+	cmd := exec.CommandContext(ctx, secretBinaryPath(t), "init")
+	cmd.Env = []string{
+		secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+		secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase + "=" + testPassphrase,
+		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
+		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
+	}
+
+	ptmx, tty, err := pty.Open()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer func() { _ = ptmx.Close() }()
+
+	deadline, _ := ctx.Deadline()
+	require.NoError(t, ptmx.SetReadDeadline(deadline))
+
+	var stderr strings.Builder
+
+	cmd.Stderr = &stderr
+	cmd.ExtraFiles = []*os.File{tty}
+	// Ctty is a descriptor in the new process: 3, the first of ExtraFiles.
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true, Setctty: true, Ctty: 3}
+
+	require.NoError(t, cmd.Start())
+
+	_ = tty.Close()
+
+	var (
+		shown []byte
+		char  byte
+	)
+
+	terminal := bufio.NewReader(ptmx)
+	for !bytes.HasSuffix(shown, []byte("Enter your BIP39 mnemonic phrase: ")) {
+		char, err = terminal.ReadByte()
+		require.NoError(t, err, "secret init did not ask on the terminal: %s",
+			shown)
+
+		shown = append(shown, char)
+	}
+
+	_, err = ptmx.WriteString(testMnemonic + "\n")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// The read ends once the command has exited and so closed the terminal.
+	rest, _ := io.ReadAll(terminal)
+
+	err = cmd.Wait()
+	require.NoError(t, err, "secret init: %s%s%s", shown, rest, stderr.String())
+
+	assert.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(stderr.String(),
+		"Initialized secrets manager at: "+stateDir+"\n\n"+
+			"Default vault created and configured\n"),
+		"stderr: %q", stderr.String())
+}
+
+// TestUnlockerAddAsksForNewPassphrase is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/154: with SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE set,
+// `secret unlocker add passphrase` gave the new unlocker the passphrase in
+// the variable without asking. At a terminal it must ask for the new
+// passphrase there, twice, and unlock the vault with the variable, so that
+// `secret get` then opens the vault with the passphrase typed. pty.Open is
+// described above TestRemoveIgnoresTerminalOnStdout.
+func TestUnlockerAddAsksForNewPassphrase(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	const newPassphrase = "new-passphrase"
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+	defer passphrase.Destroy()
+
+	vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(afero.NewOsFs(), stateDir, "default",
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), passphrase)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	value := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("v1"))
+	defer value.Destroy()
+
+	require.NoError(t, vlt.AddSecret("s1", value, false))
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), commandWait)
+	defer cancel()
+
+	//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+	cmd := exec.CommandContext(ctx, secretBinaryPath(t),
+		"unlocker", "add", "passphrase")
+	cmd.Env = []string{
+		secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+		secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase + "=" + testPassphrase,
+		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
+		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
+	}
+
+	ptmx, tty, err := pty.Open()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer func() { _ = ptmx.Close() }()
+
+	deadline, _ := ctx.Deadline()
+	require.NoError(t, ptmx.SetReadDeadline(deadline))
+
+	cmd.Stderr = tty
+	// Ctty is a descriptor in the new process: 2, its stderr.
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true, Setctty: true, Ctty: 2}
+
+	require.NoError(t, cmd.Start())
+
+	_ = tty.Close()
+
+	var (
+		shown []byte
+		char  byte
+	)
+
+	terminal := bufio.NewReader(ptmx)
+
+	for _, prompt := range []string{
+		"Enter passphrase for unlocker: ", "Confirm passphrase: ",
+	} {
+		for !bytes.HasSuffix(shown, []byte(prompt)) {
+			char, err = terminal.ReadByte()
+			require.NoError(t, err,
+				"secret unlocker add passphrase did not ask on the terminal: %s",
+				shown)
+
+			shown = append(shown, char)
+		}
+
+		_, err = ptmx.WriteString(newPassphrase + "\n")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+	}
+
+	// The read ends once the command has exited and so closed the terminal.
+	rest, _ := io.ReadAll(terminal)
+
+	require.NoError(t, cmd.Wait(),
+		"secret unlocker add passphrase: %s%s", shown, rest)
+
+	// The binary, not this test process, opens the vault: the new unlocker
+	// has age's full scrypt work factor, which is slow under the race
+	// detector.
+	assert.Equal(t, "v1",
+		runWithoutTerminal(t, stateDir, newPassphrase, "get", "s1"))
+}
+
+// TestUnlockerAddWithoutTerminalSaysPassphraseIsVariable is a regression
+// test for https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/154: with no terminal to
+// ask on, `secret unlocker add passphrase` gives the new unlocker the
+// passphrase in SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE, and its output must say so.
+func TestUnlockerAddWithoutTerminalSaysPassphraseIsVariable(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+	defer passphrase.Destroy()
+
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(afero.NewOsFs(), stateDir, "default",
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), passphrase)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	output := runWithoutTerminal(t, stateDir, testPassphrase,
+		"unlocker", "add", "passphrase")
+
+	assert.Contains(t, output, "The new unlocker takes its passphrase "+
+		"from SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE, since there is no terminal to ask for a "+
+		"new one on\n")
+}
+
+// runWithoutTerminal runs the secret binary with args and SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE
+// set to passphrase, in a new session, which has no terminal, and returns
+// what it printed once it has succeeded.
+func runWithoutTerminal(
+	t *testing.T, stateDir, passphrase string, args ...string,
+) string {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), commandWait)
+	defer cancel()
+
+	//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+	cmd := exec.CommandContext(ctx, secretBinaryPath(t), args...)
+	cmd.Env = []string{
+		secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+		secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase + "=" + passphrase,
+		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
+		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
+	}
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true}
+
+	output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
+	require.NoError(t, err, "secret %v: %s", args, output)
+
+	return string(output)
+}
+
+// runAtTerminal runs the secret binary with args and input on stdin, in a
+// new session whose controlling terminal is a new terminal, which is also
+// its stderr: a command typed at a terminal with its input piped. pty.Open
+// is described above TestRemoveIgnoresTerminalOnStdout. runAtTerminal waits
+// for the passphrase prompt on the terminal, types the passphrase there,
+// and returns what the command wrote to stdout once it has succeeded.
+func runAtTerminal(t *testing.T, stateDir, input string, args ...string) string {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), commandWait)
+	defer cancel()
+
+	//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+	cmd := exec.CommandContext(ctx, secretBinaryPath(t), args...)
+	cmd.Env = []string{
+		secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
+		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
+	}
+
+	ptmx, tty, err := pty.Open()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer func() { _ = ptmx.Close() }()
+
+	deadline, _ := ctx.Deadline()
+	require.NoError(t, ptmx.SetReadDeadline(deadline))
+
+	var stdout strings.Builder
+
+	cmd.Stdin = strings.NewReader(input)
+	cmd.Stdout = &stdout
+	cmd.Stderr = tty
+	// Ctty is a descriptor in the new process: 2, its stderr.
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true, Setctty: true, Ctty: 2}
+
+	require.NoError(t, cmd.Start())
+
+	_ = tty.Close()
+
+	var (
+		shown []byte
+		char  byte
+	)
+
+	terminal := bufio.NewReader(ptmx)
+	for !bytes.HasSuffix(shown, []byte("Enter unlock passphrase: ")) {
+		char, err = terminal.ReadByte()
+		require.NoError(t, err, "secret %v did not ask on the terminal: %s",
+			args, shown)
+
+		shown = append(shown, char)
+	}
+
+	_, err = ptmx.WriteString(testPassphrase + "\n")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// The read ends once the command has exited and so closed the terminal.
+	rest, _ := io.ReadAll(terminal)
+
+	require.NoError(t, cmd.Wait(), "secret %v: %s%s", args, shown, rest)
+
+	return stdout.String()
+}

internal/cli/path_traversal_test.go

@@ -306,8 +306,7 @@ func TestInvalidVersionLeavesVaultsUnchanged(t *testing.T) {
 
 // TestInvalidVaultNameLeavesStateUnchanged is a regression test for
 // https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/68, where
-// `secret vault import ..` wrote a long-term key and an unlocker into the
+// `secret vault select ..` made the state directory itself the current
-// state directory itself, and `secret vault select ..` made it the current
 // vault. Each command that takes a vault name must reject an invalid one
 // before building a path from it. The instance is given the mnemonic and
 // the passphrase, and moves and removals use --force, so that only the name
@@ -331,9 +330,6 @@ func TestInvalidVaultNameLeavesStateUnchanged(t *testing.T) {
 		{"vault create %q", func(c *cli.Instance, name string) error {
 			return c.CreateVault(cmd, name)
 		}},
-		{"vault import %q", func(c *cli.Instance, name string) error {
-			return c.VaultImport(cmd, name)
-		}},
 		{"vault select %q", func(c *cli.Instance, name string) error {
 			return c.SelectVault(cmd, name)
 		}},

internal/cli/root.go

@@ -14,17 +14,32 @@ import (
 // every memguard buffer before it returns, so the caller must do nothing
 // but exit with the code.
 func Entry() int {
+	raiseLockedMemoryLimit()
+
 	// On SIGINT or SIGTERM memguard runs this function, wipes every buffer
-	// and exits with status 1. The passphrase prompt turns terminal echo
+	// and exits with status 1. The passphrase prompt turns echo off on the
-	// off until the read finishes, so a signal there would leave echo off.
+	// controlling terminal until the read finishes, so a signal there would
-	// Only a process in the terminal's foreground process group may reset
+	// leave echo off. Only a process in the terminal's foreground process
-	// it: one in the background that tries is stopped instead of exiting.
+	// group may reset it: one in the background that tries is stopped
-	terminalState, terminalErr := term.GetState(unix.Stdin)
+	// instead of exiting.
+	terminal, terminalErr := os.Open(secret.TerminalPath)
+
+	var terminalState *term.State
+
+	if terminalErr == nil {
+		defer func() { _ = terminal.Close() }()
+
+		terminalState, terminalErr = term.GetState(int(terminal.Fd()))
+	}
 
 	memguard.CatchSignal(func(os.Signal) {
-		foreground, err := unix.IoctlGetInt(unix.Stdin, unix.TIOCGPGRP)
+		if terminalErr != nil {
-		if terminalErr == nil && err == nil && foreground == unix.Getpgrp() {
+			return
-			_ = term.Restore(unix.Stdin, terminalState)
+		}
+
+		foreground, err := unix.IoctlGetInt(int(terminal.Fd()), unix.TIOCGPGRP)
+		if err == nil && foreground == unix.Getpgrp() {
+			_ = term.Restore(int(terminal.Fd()), terminalState)
 		}
 	}, os.Interrupt, unix.SIGTERM)
 
@@ -38,6 +53,19 @@ func Entry() int {
 	return 0
 }
 
+// raiseLockedMemoryLimit raises this process's limit on locked memory, which
+// holds every secret value, to the hard limit, the most a process may set
+// without privileges. When that fails the limit stays as it was, and
+// checkLockedMemoryLimit names it in its error.
+func raiseLockedMemoryLimit() {
+	var limit unix.Rlimit
+
+	if unix.Getrlimit(unix.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK, &limit) == nil {
+		limit.Cur = limit.Max
+		_ = unix.Setrlimit(unix.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK, &limit)
+	}
+}
+
 func newRootCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	secret.Debug("newRootCmd starting")
 

internal/cli/secrets.go

@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
 )
@@ -24,26 +25,30 @@ const (
 	// vaultSecretParts is the number of parts when splitting vault:secret
 	vaultSecretParts = 2
 
-	// initialBufferSize is the starting size for secret read buffers (4KB)
-	initialBufferSize = 4 * 1024
 	// maxSecretSize is the maximum allowed size of a secret (100MB)
 	maxSecretSize = 100 * 1024 * 1024
+
+	// lockedMemoryReservePages is the locked memory, in pages, that `secret
+	// add`, `secret import` and `secret generate secret` may need besides
+	// the value they store, for keys and the read buffer: memguard locks
+	// whole pages, at least one for each buffer. `secret add` was measured
+	// to need 7 with both SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC and SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE set,
+	// and 6 with one; the eighth is to spare.
+	lockedMemoryReservePages = 8
+	// kibibyte is the unit of the locked-memory limit in `ulimit -l`.
+	kibibyte = 1024
 )
 
 // Sentinel errors for secret operations
 var (
-	errSecretTooLarge              = errors.New("secret too large: exceeds 100MB limit")
+	errSecretTooLarge    = errors.New("secret too large: exceeds 100MB limit")
+	errLockedMemoryLimit = errors.New(
+		"secret too large for the locked-memory limit")
 	errCrossVaultSourceUnqualified = errors.New(
 		"source must specify vault (e.g., vault:secret) for cross-vault move")
 	errMoveOntoItself = errors.New("cannot be moved onto itself")
 )
 
-// bufferInfo tracks a protected buffer and the number of bytes used in it
-type bufferInfo struct {
-	buffer *memguard.LockedBuffer
-	used   int
-}
-
 // ParseVaultSecretRef parses a "vault:secret" or just "secret" reference
 // Returns (vaultName, secretName, isQualified)
 // If no vault is specified, returns empty vaultName and isQualified=false
@@ -75,6 +80,12 @@ func newAddCmd() *cobra.Command {
 
 			cli.cmd = cmd // Set the command for stdin access
 
+			// Before readSecretEnv, which makes the first locked allocation
+			err = checkLockedMemoryLimit(0)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
 			destroySecrets := cli.readSecretEnv()
 			defer destroySecrets()
 
@@ -174,6 +185,12 @@ func newImportCmd() *cobra.Command {
 				return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize CLI: %w", err)
 			}
 
+			// Before readSecretEnv, which makes the first locked allocation
+			err = checkLockedMemoryLimit(0)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
 			destroySecrets := cli.readSecretEnv()
 			defer destroySecrets()
 
@@ -270,88 +287,105 @@ The source secret is deleted after successful copy.`,
 	return cmd
 }
 
-// updateBufferSize updates the buffer size based on usage pattern
+// checkLockedMemoryLimit returns an error naming the locked-memory limit
-func updateBufferSize(currentSize int, sameSize *int) int {
+// (`ulimit -l`) when a value of size bytes does not fit in it with
-	const (
+// lockedMemoryReservePages. memguard, which holds secret values in locked
-		doubleAfterBuffers = 2
+// memory, crashes or hangs the process when it cannot lock more, so a
-		growthFactor       = 2
+// command calls this with size 0 before its first locked allocation, and
-	)
+// again with the value's size before a buffer for the value is allocated.
+func checkLockedMemoryLimit(size int) error {
+	var limit unix.Rlimit
 
-	*sameSize++
+	err := unix.Getrlimit(unix.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK, &limit)
-	if *sameSize >= doubleAfterBuffers {
+	if err != nil {
-		*sameSize = 0
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read the locked-memory limit: %w", err)
-
-		return currentSize * growthFactor
 	}
 
-	return currentSize
+	// memguard locks whole pages, so the value is counted in whole pages.
-}
+	pageSize := os.Getpagesize()
+	valuePages := (size + pageSize - 1) / pageSize
 
-// destroyBuffers destroys every buffer in the list
+	//nolint:gosec // G115: a page count and a page size are never negative
-func destroyBuffers(buffers []bufferInfo) {
+	needed := uint64((valuePages + lockedMemoryReservePages) * pageSize)
-	for _, b := range buffers {
+	if needed > limit.Cur {
-		b.buffer.Destroy()
+		return fmt.Errorf("%w of %d KiB (ulimit -l)",
+			errLockedMemoryLimit, limit.Cur/kibibyte)
 	}
+
+	return nil
 }
 
-// readSecretFromReader reads all data from reader into protected buffers,
+// readSecretFromReader reads all of reader into a new locked buffer, which
-// enforcing the maximum secret size. On failure the accumulated buffers
+// the caller must destroy, leaving out one trailing newline when trimNewline
-// are destroyed; on success the caller must destroy them.
+// is set. It reads a page at a time into a memguard.Stream, which keeps what
-func readSecretFromReader(reader io.Reader) ([]bufferInfo, int, error) {
+// it is given encrypted, so that the value is in locked memory only once, in
-	var buffers []bufferInfo
+// the buffer returned, and both size checks come before that buffer is
+// allocated. It takes the value back out with Stream.Next, not Stream.Read:
+// Read puts back the part of a piece that does not fit, and memguard hangs
+// when it runs out of locked memory doing that.
+func readSecretFromReader(
+	reader io.Reader, trimNewline bool,
+) (*memguard.LockedBuffer, error) {
+	stream := memguard.NewStream()
 
-	totalSize := 0
+	chunk := memguard.NewBuffer(os.Getpagesize())
-	currentBufferSize := initialBufferSize
+	defer chunk.Destroy()
-	sameSize := 0
+
+	size := 0
+	endsWithNewline := false
 
 	for {
-		// Create a new buffer
+		n, err := io.ReadFull(reader, chunk.Bytes())
-		buffer := memguard.NewBuffer(currentBufferSize)
+		if n > 0 {
-		n, err := io.ReadFull(reader, buffer.Bytes())
+			size += n
-
+			if size > maxSecretSize {
-		if n == 0 {
+				return nil, errSecretTooLarge
-			// No data read, destroy the unused buffer
-			buffer.Destroy()
-		} else {
-			buffers = append(buffers, bufferInfo{buffer: buffer, used: n})
-			totalSize += n
-
-			if totalSize > maxSecretSize {
-				destroyBuffers(buffers)
-
-				return nil, 0, errSecretTooLarge
 			}
 
-			// If we filled the buffer, consider growing for next iteration
+			endsWithNewline = chunk.Bytes()[n-1] == '\n'
-			if n == currentBufferSize {
+
-				currentBufferSize = updateBufferSize(currentBufferSize, &sameSize)
+			// Write encrypts the bytes and wipes them from chunk.
-			}
+			_, _ = stream.Write(chunk.Bytes()[:n])
 		}
 
-		if err == io.EOF || errors.Is(err, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF) {
+		if errors.Is(err, io.EOF) || errors.Is(err, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF) {
 			break
-		} else if err != nil {
+		}
-			destroyBuffers(buffers)
 
-			return nil, 0, err
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
 		}
 	}
 
-	return buffers, totalSize, nil
+	// Freed before the value's buffer is allocated, so that the two are
-}
+	// never locked at once.
+	chunk.Destroy()
 
-// combineBuffers copies the used portions of buffers into a single
+	if trimNewline && endsWithNewline {
-// protected buffer of totalSize bytes
+		size--
-func combineBuffers(buffers []bufferInfo, totalSize int) *memguard.LockedBuffer {
-	valueBuffer := memguard.NewBuffer(totalSize)
-
-	offset := 0
-	for _, b := range buffers {
-		copy(valueBuffer.Bytes()[offset:], b.buffer.Bytes()[:b.used])
-		offset += b.used
 	}
 
-	return valueBuffer
+	err := checkLockedMemoryLimit(size)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	value := memguard.NewBuffer(size)
+
+	// copy stops at the value's size, so a trimmed newline is not copied.
+	for offset := 0; offset < size; {
+		decrypted, err := stream.Next()
+		if err != nil {
+			value.Destroy()
+
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decrypt the value read: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		offset += copy(value.Bytes()[offset:], decrypted.Bytes())
+		decrypted.Destroy()
+	}
+
+	return value, nil
 }
 
 // AddSecret adds a secret to the current vault
@@ -370,35 +404,21 @@ func (cli *Instance) AddSecret(secretName string, force bool) error {
 
 	secret.Debug("Got current vault", "vault_name", vlt.GetName())
 
-	// Read secret value directly into protected buffers
+	// Read the secret value, less a trailing newline, into locked memory
-	secret.Debug("Reading secret value from stdin into protected buffers")
+	secret.Debug("Reading secret value from stdin into a protected buffer")
 
-	buffers, totalSize, err := readSecretFromReader(cli.cmd.InOrStdin())
+	valueBuffer, err := readSecretFromReader(cli.cmd.InOrStdin(), true)
 	if err != nil {
-		if errors.Is(err, errSecretTooLarge) {
+		if errors.Is(err, errSecretTooLarge) || errors.Is(err, errLockedMemoryLimit) {
 			return err
 		}
 
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read secret value: %w", err)
 	}
-	defer destroyBuffers(buffers)
-
-	// Check for trailing newline in the last buffer
-	if len(buffers) > 0 && totalSize > 0 {
-		lastBuffer := &buffers[len(buffers)-1]
-		if lastBuffer.buffer.Bytes()[lastBuffer.used-1] == '\n' {
-			lastBuffer.used--
-			totalSize--
-		}
-	}
-
-	secret.Debug("Read secret value from stdin",
-		"value_length", totalSize, "buffers", len(buffers))
-
-	// Combine all buffers into a single protected buffer
-	valueBuffer := combineBuffers(buffers, totalSize)
 	defer valueBuffer.Destroy()
 
+	secret.Debug("Read secret value from stdin", "value_length", valueBuffer.Size())
+
 	// Locked only now that stdin has been read: in `secret encrypt key |
 	// secret add name`, holding the lock while reading would leave each
 	// command waiting for the other.
@@ -443,7 +463,10 @@ func (cli *Instance) GetSecret(cmd *cobra.Command, secretName string) error {
 	defer value.Destroy()
 
 	// Write the value straight from locked memory, with no trailing newline
-	_, _ = cmd.OutOrStdout().Write(value.Bytes())
+	_, err = cmd.OutOrStdout().Write(value.Bytes())
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to write secret value: %w", err)
+	}
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -478,7 +501,10 @@ func (cli *Instance) GetSecretWithVersion(
 	secret.Debug("Got secret value", "valueLength", value.Size())
 
 	// Write the value straight from locked memory, with no trailing newline
-	_, _ = cmd.OutOrStdout().Write(value.Bytes())
+	_, err = cmd.OutOrStdout().Write(value.Bytes())
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to write secret value: %w", err)
+	}
 
 	secret.Debug("Printed value to stdout")
 
@@ -541,8 +567,12 @@ func printSecretsJSON(
 			"name": secretName,
 		}
 
-		// Try to get metadata using GetSecretObject
+		// A secret whose times cannot be read is listed without them
 		secretObj, err := vlt.GetSecretObject(secretName)
+		if err == nil {
+			err = secretObj.LoadMetadata()
+		}
+
 		if err == nil {
 			metadata := secretObj.GetMetadata()
 			secretInfo["created_at"] = metadata.CreatedAt
@@ -618,6 +648,10 @@ func printSecretsTable(
 		lastUpdated := "unknown"
 
 		secretObj, err := vlt.GetSecretObject(secretName)
+		if err == nil {
+			err = secretObj.LoadMetadata()
+		}
+
 		if err == nil {
 			metadata := secretObj.GetMetadata()
 			lastUpdated = metadata.UpdatedAt.Format("2006-01-02 15:04")
@@ -653,7 +687,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) ImportSecret(
 
 	vlt.Mnemonic, vlt.UnlockPassphrase = cli.Mnemonic, cli.UnlockPassphrase
 
-	// Read secret value from the source file into protected buffers
+	// Read secret value from the source file into a protected buffer
 	file, err := cli.fs.Open(sourceFile)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to open file %s: %w", sourceFile, err)
@@ -665,14 +699,10 @@ func (cli *Instance) ImportSecret(
 		}
 	}()
 
-	buffers, totalSize, err := readSecretFromReader(file)
+	valueBuffer, err := readSecretFromReader(file, false)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read secret from file %s: %w", sourceFile, err)
 	}
-	defer destroyBuffers(buffers)
-
-	// Combine all buffers into a single protected buffer
-	valueBuffer := combineBuffers(buffers, totalSize)
 	defer valueBuffer.Destroy()
 
 	// Locked only now that the file has been read, as in AddSecret: the

internal/cli/secrets_size_test.go

@@ -3,17 +3,23 @@ package cli
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"context"
 	"crypto/rand"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/pkg/agehd"
 )
@@ -208,23 +214,25 @@ func TestImportSecretVariousSizes(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestAddSecretBufferGrowth tests that our buffer growth strategy works correctly
+// TestAddSecretAroundPageSize tests that secret add, which reads its input
+// one memory page (usually 4 KiB) at a time, stores values just under, at and
+// just over one and two pages unchanged.
 //
 //nolint:paralleltest // in parallel, size tests could exceed the memlock limit
-func TestAddSecretBufferGrowth(t *testing.T) {
+func TestAddSecretAroundPageSize(t *testing.T) {
-	// Test various sizes that should trigger buffer growth
+	// Sizes around one and two pages of 4 KiB, then larger ones up to 1 MiB
 	sizes := []int{
 		1,       // Single byte
 		100,     // Small
-		4095,    // Just under initial 4KB
+		4095,    // Just under 4KB
 		4096,    // Exactly 4KB
 		4097,    // Just over 4KB
-		8191,    // Just under 8KB (first double)
+		8191,    // Just under 8KB
 		8192,    // Exactly 8KB
 		8193,    // Just over 8KB
-		12288,   // 12KB (should trigger second double)
+		12288,   // 12KB
 		16384,   // 16KB
-		32768,   // 32KB (after more doublings)
+		32768,   // 32KB
 		65536,   // 64KB
 		131072,  // 128KB
 		524288,  // 512KB
@@ -315,6 +323,144 @@ func TestAddSecretStreamingBehavior(t *testing.T) {
 		"Retrieved secret should match original")
 }
 
+// newBinaryTestStateDir returns a new state directory holding a vault made
+// from the test mnemonic, for the secret binary to use.
+func newBinaryTestStateDir(t *testing.T) string {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(afero.NewOsFs(), stateDir, "default",
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	return stateDir
+}
+
+// runAtLockedMemoryLimit runs the secret binary with args, stdin, the state
+// directory stateDir and the test mnemonic, its locked-memory limit (ulimit
+// -l) lowered to limitKiB, and returns what it printed.
+func runAtLockedMemoryLimit(
+	t *testing.T, stateDir string, limitKiB int, stdin io.Reader,
+	args ...string,
+) (string, error) {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	const commandWait = 10 * time.Second
+
+	secretPath, err := filepath.Abs("../../secret")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), commandWait)
+	defer cancel()
+
+	// The shell lowers the limit for itself and the binary only.
+	script := fmt.Sprintf(`ulimit -l %d && exec "$0" "$@"`, limitKiB)
+
+	//nolint:gosec // G204: runs the freshly built secret binary
+	cmd := exec.CommandContext(ctx, "sh",
+		append([]string{"-c", script, secretPath}, args...)...)
+	cmd.Env = []string{
+		secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir,
+		secret.EnvMnemonic + "=" + testMnemonic,
+	}
+	cmd.Stdin = stdin
+
+	output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
+
+	return string(output), err
+}
+
+// requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit runs the secret binary as
+// runAtLockedMemoryLimit does, and requires it to exit with status 1 and
+// print wantError, with no panic.
+func requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(
+	t *testing.T, stateDir string, limitKiB int, wantError string,
+	stdin io.Reader, args ...string,
+) {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	output, err := runAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, limitKiB, stdin, args...)
+
+	var exitErr *exec.ExitError
+
+	require.ErrorAs(t, err, &exitErr, "%v: %s", args, output)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, exitErr.ExitCode(), "%v: %s", args, output)
+	assert.Contains(t, output, wantError, args)
+	assert.NotContains(t, output, "panic", args)
+}
+
+// TestSecretsAtLockedMemoryLimit runs the secret binary with the
+// locked-memory limit (ulimit -l) lowered to 1 MiB, where memguard would crash
+// the process with a panic instead of returning an error. add must store the
+// largest value that fits, which takes holding it in locked memory only once.
+// add, import and generate secret must refuse a value one byte larger with
+// exit status 1 and an error saying why.
+func TestSecretsAtLockedMemoryLimit(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	const limitKiB = 1024
+
+	fits := limitKiB*kibibyte - lockedMemoryReservePages*os.Getpagesize()
+	limitError := fmt.Sprintf("locked-memory limit of %d KiB", limitKiB)
+	stateDir := newBinaryTestStateDir(t)
+
+	tooBigFile := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "too-big")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(tooBigFile, make([]byte, fits+1), 0o600))
+
+	output, err := runAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, limitKiB,
+		bytes.NewReader(make([]byte, fits)), "add", "fits")
+	require.NoError(t, err, "the largest value that fits: %s", output)
+
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, limitKiB, limitError,
+		bytes.NewReader(make([]byte, fits+1)), "add", "too-big")
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, limitKiB, limitError,
+		nil, "import", "too-big", "--source", tooBigFile)
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, limitKiB, limitError,
+		nil, "generate", "secret", "too-big", "--length", strconv.Itoa(fits+1))
+}
+
+// TestSecretsUnderSmallLockedMemoryLimits runs add, import and generate
+// secret with a short value under two small locked-memory limits (ulimit
+// -l). Under 20 KiB, too little for the buffers they need besides the value,
+// each must refuse it with exit status 1 and an error naming the limit, where
+// memguard would panic or hang. Under 64 KiB, the default of older Linux
+// kernels, each must store it.
+func TestSecretsUnderSmallLockedMemoryLimits(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	const (
+		tooSmallLimitKiB   = 20
+		oldDefaultLimitKiB = 64
+		shortValue         = "hunter2"
+	)
+
+	tooSmallLimitError := fmt.Sprintf("locked-memory limit of %d KiB",
+		tooSmallLimitKiB)
+	stateDir := newBinaryTestStateDir(t)
+
+	shortFile := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "short")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(shortFile, []byte(shortValue), 0o600))
+
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, tooSmallLimitKiB,
+		tooSmallLimitError, strings.NewReader(shortValue), "add", "added")
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, tooSmallLimitKiB,
+		tooSmallLimitError, nil, "import", "imported", "--source", shortFile)
+	requireRefusedAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, tooSmallLimitKiB,
+		tooSmallLimitError, nil, "generate", "secret", "generated")
+
+	output, err := runAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, oldDefaultLimitKiB,
+		strings.NewReader(shortValue), "add", "added")
+	require.NoError(t, err, "add: %s", output)
+
+	output, err = runAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, oldDefaultLimitKiB,
+		nil, "import", "imported", "--source", shortFile)
+	require.NoError(t, err, "import: %s", output)
+
+	output, err = runAtLockedMemoryLimit(t, stateDir, oldDefaultLimitKiB,
+		nil, "generate", "secret", "generated")
+	require.NoError(t, err, "generate secret: %s", output)
+}
+
 // slowReader simulates a reader that returns data in small chunks
 type slowReader struct {
 	data      []byte

internal/cli/stdout_stderr_test.go

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package cli_test
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
@@ -9,6 +10,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/bip39"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
 )
 
@@ -90,3 +92,66 @@ func TestGetCommandOutputsToStdout(t *testing.T) {
 	// Nothing should be in stderr
 	assert.Empty(t, stderr.String(), "stderr should be empty")
 }
+
+// TestMnemonicAndListingsOutputToStdout tests that 'secret generate
+// mnemonic', 'secret vault list' and 'secret unlocker list' print their
+// output to stdout, so that it can be piped
+func TestMnemonicAndListingsOutputToStdout(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	tempDir := t.TempDir()
+	secretPath := secretBinaryPath(t)
+
+	// run runs the secret binary and returns what it wrote to stdout and to
+	// stderr
+	run := func(args ...string) (string, string) {
+		//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+		cmd := exec.CommandContext(t.Context(), secretPath, args...)
+		cmd.Env = []string{
+			secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + tempDir,
+			secret.EnvMnemonic + "=" + testMnemonic,
+			secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase + "=test-passphrase",
+			"PATH=/usr/bin:/bin",
+		}
+
+		var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+
+		cmd.Stdout = &stdout
+		cmd.Stderr = &stderr
+
+		err := cmd.Run()
+		require.NoError(t, err, "%v should succeed: %s", args, stderr.String())
+
+		return stdout.String(), stderr.String()
+	}
+
+	stdout, stderr := run("generate", "mnemonic")
+	assert.True(t, bip39.IsMnemonicValid(strings.TrimSpace(stdout)),
+		"stdout should hold the mnemonic, not %q", stdout)
+	assert.Contains(t, stderr, "Save this mnemonic phrase securely",
+		"the warning should be on stderr")
+
+	run("init")
+
+	stdout, _ = run("vault", "list", "--json")
+
+	var vaults map[string]any
+
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal([]byte(stdout), &vaults),
+		"stdout should hold the vaults as JSON, not %q", stdout)
+	assert.Equal(t, "default", vaults["currentVault"])
+
+	stdout, _ = run("unlocker", "list", "--json")
+
+	var unlockers map[string]any
+
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal([]byte(stdout), &unlockers),
+		"stdout should hold the unlockers as JSON, not %q", stdout)
+	assert.Len(t, unlockers["unlockers"], 1)
+
+	stdout, _ = run("vault", "list")
+	assert.Contains(t, stdout, "default (current)")
+
+	stdout, _ = run("unlocker", "list")
+	assert.Contains(t, stdout, "Total: 1 unlocker(s)")
+}

internal/cli/trailing_newline_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+//nolint:testpackage // white-box test of unexported internals
+package cli
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+// TestAddDropsOneTrailingNewlineImportKeepsIt pins the rule the README
+// gives: `secret add` drops one trailing newline from stdin, and
+// `secret import` stores the file's bytes unchanged.
+func TestAddDropsOneTrailingNewlineImportKeepsIt(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs, vlt := newSizeTestVault(t)
+	value := []byte("a\n\n")
+
+	cmd := &cobra.Command{}
+	cmd.SetIn(bytes.NewReader(value))
+
+	cli := NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, testStateDir)
+	cli.cmd = cmd
+
+	require.NoError(t, cli.AddSecret("added", false))
+
+	sourceFile := "/test/value"
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs, sourceFile, value, 0o600))
+	require.NoError(t, cli.ImportSecret(cmd, "imported", sourceFile, false))
+
+	added, err := vlt.GetSecret("added")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer added.Destroy()
+
+	imported, err := vlt.GetSecret("imported")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	defer imported.Destroy()
+
+	assert.Equal(t, []byte("a\n"), added.Bytes())
+	assert.Equal(t, []byte("a\n\n"), imported.Bytes())
+}

internal/cli/unknown_subcommand_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package cli_test
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"os/exec"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
+)
+
+// TestUnknownSubcommandFails is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/183: given a subcommand it does not
+// have, `secret vault`, `secret unlocker`, `secret version` and `secret
+// generate` printed their help and exited 0, so a script could not tell a
+// mistyped command from a successful one. Each runs here as the built binary
+// and must exit 1 naming the subcommand, as an unknown command does at the
+// top level, and must still print its help and exit 0 when given nothing.
+func TestUnknownSubcommandFails(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	stateDir := t.TempDir()
+
+	// run runs the built binary with args and returns what it printed and
+	// its exit code
+	run := func(args ...string) (string, int) {
+		//nolint:gosec // G204: test executes the freshly built secret binary
+		cmd := exec.CommandContext(t.Context(), secretBinaryPath(t), args...)
+		cmd.Env = []string{secret.EnvStateDir + "=" + stateDir}
+
+		output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
+		if err != nil {
+			var exitErr *exec.ExitError
+			require.ErrorAs(t, err, &exitErr, "secret %v did not run", args)
+		}
+
+		return string(output), cmd.ProcessState.ExitCode()
+	}
+
+	for _, call := range []string{
+		"vault improt", "unlocker foo", "version foo", "generate foo",
+	} {
+		parent, unknown, _ := strings.Cut(call, " ")
+
+		output, exitCode := run(parent, unknown)
+		assert.Equal(t, 1, exitCode, "secret %s should fail:\n%s", call, output)
+		assert.Contains(t, output, fmt.Sprintf(
+			"unknown command %q for \"secret %s\"", unknown, parent))
+
+		output, exitCode = run(parent)
+		assert.Equal(t, 0, exitCode,
+			"secret %s should succeed:\n%s", parent, output)
+		assert.Contains(t, output, usageHeading,
+			"secret %s should print its help", parent)
+	}
+}

internal/cli/unlock_failure_test.go

@@ -1,12 +1,14 @@
 // Unlock Failure Tests
 //
 // When a vault cannot be opened through its current unlocker, because a
-// file the unlocker needs is missing or the passphrase is wrong, the error
+// file the unlocker needs is missing, the error keeps its cause and ends by
-// keeps its cause and ends by saying that the mnemonic still opens that
+// saying that the mnemonic still opens that vault, but only for a vault that
-// vault, but only for a vault that the mnemonic does open, and not when the
+// the mnemonic does open, and not when the passphrase could not be read at
-// passphrase could not be read at all. When a secret's current file is
+// all. A wrong passphrase gives an error that says so, without that advice.
-// missing, the error says how to make a version current again. Each test
+// When the current unlocker does not exist and the vault has another that
-// that pins such advice also follows it.
+// `secret unlocker select` accepts, the error says to select one instead.
+// When a secret's current file is missing, the error says how to make a
+// version current again. Each test that pins such advice also follows it.
 
 package cli_test
 
@@ -16,9 +18,9 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"syscall"
 	"testing"
 
-	"filippo.io/age"
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
@@ -162,26 +164,48 @@ func TestUnlockFailureNamesMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestWrongPassphraseNamesMnemonic checks the error of `secret get` given a
+// TestWrongPassphraseNamesPassphrase checks the error of `secret get` given
-// passphrase that does not decrypt the passphrase unlocker: it keeps age's
+// a passphrase that does not decrypt the passphrase unlocker: it says that
-// error and ends with the advice that the mnemonic still opens the vault.
+// the passphrase is wrong, without the advice to use the mnemonic, since the
-func TestWrongPassphraseNamesMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
+// unlocker still opens the vault with the right passphrase. The test then
+// gives the right passphrase.
+func TestWrongPassphraseNamesPassphrase(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	_, c := newUnlockTestCLI(t, newTwoVaultFs(t))
+	unlockerDir, c := newUnlockTestCLI(t, newTwoVaultFs(t))
 	c.UnlockPassphrase = memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("wrong passphrase"))
 	t.Cleanup(c.UnlockPassphrase.Destroy)
 
 	err := c.GetSecret(discardCmd(), "x")
 
-	var noMatch *age.NoIdentityMatchError
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, secret.ErrWrongPassphrase)
-
+	assert.NotContains(t, err.Error(), mnemonicAdvice)
-	require.ErrorAs(t, err, &noMatch)
-
 	require.EqualError(t, err, "failed to unlock vault: "+
 		"failed to get long-term key: failed to get unlocker identity: "+
-		"failed to decrypt unlocker private key: failed to create decryptor: "+
+		"wrong passphrase for unlocker "+filepath.Base(unlockerDir))
-		noMatch.Error()+mnemonicAdvice)
+
+	c.UnlockPassphrase = memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+	t.Cleanup(c.UnlockPassphrase.Destroy)
+	assert.Equal(t, "value", getSecret(t, c, "x"))
+}
+
+// TestDamagedUnlockerNamesMnemonic checks the error of `secret get` when the
+// passphrase unlocker's priv.age is not an age file: the passphrase is not
+// blamed, and the error ends with the advice that the mnemonic still opens
+// the vault.
+func TestDamagedUnlockerNamesMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := newTwoVaultFs(t)
+	unlockerDir, c := newUnlockTestCLI(t, fs)
+
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs, filepath.Join(unlockerDir, "priv.age"),
+		[]byte("damaged"), secret.FilePerms))
+
+	err := c.GetSecret(discardCmd(), "x")
+
+	require.NotErrorIs(t, err, secret.ErrWrongPassphrase)
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, mnemonicAdvice)
 }
 
 // TestMoveUnlockFailureNamesVault checks the error of `secret move` into
@@ -222,8 +246,71 @@ func TestMoveUnlockFailureNamesVault(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, "value", getSecret(t, c, "y"))
 }
 
+// TestMissingCurrentUnlockerNamesSelect checks the error of `secret get`
+// when current-unlocker names an unlocker that does not exist and the vault
+// has another: it names the missing unlocker and says to select another
+// one, without the advice to use the mnemonic. The test then follows that
+// advice.
+func TestMissingCurrentUnlockerNamesSelect(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := newTwoVaultFs(t)
+	unlockerDir, c := newUnlockTestCLI(t, fs)
+
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs,
+		filepath.Join(unlockTestVaultDir, "current-unlocker"),
+		[]byte("missing"), secret.FilePerms))
+
+	err := c.GetSecret(discardCmd(), "x")
+
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, vault.ErrUnlockerNotFound)
+	require.EqualError(t, err, "failed to unlock vault: "+
+		"failed to get long-term key: failed to get current unlocker: "+
+		"unlocker with ID missing not found; the vault 'default' has other "+
+		"unlockers: run 'secret unlocker select' with the ID of one of them "+
+		"to make it the current unlocker")
+
+	require.NoError(t, c.UnlockerSelect(filepath.Base(unlockerDir)))
+	assert.Equal(t, "value", getSecret(t, c, "x"))
+}
+
+// TestMissingCurrentUnlockerNamesMnemonic checks the error of `secret get`
+// when the unlocker that current-unlocker names does not exist and the
+// vault's only other unlocker is the directory "odd", whose metadata names a
+// type that `secret unlocker select` refuses: the error ends with the advice
+// that the mnemonic still opens the vault, not with advice to select another
+// unlocker. The test then follows that advice.
+func TestMissingCurrentUnlockerNamesMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := newTwoVaultFs(t)
+	unlockerDir, c := newUnlockTestCLI(t, fs)
+
+	require.NoError(t, fs.RemoveAll(unlockerDir))
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs,
+		filepath.Join(unlockTestVaultDir, "unlockers.d", "odd",
+			"unlocker-metadata.json"),
+		[]byte(`{"type": "odd"}`), secret.FilePerms))
+
+	err := c.GetSecret(discardCmd(), "x")
+
+	var cause *os.PathError
+
+	require.ErrorAs(t, err, &cause)
+	require.NotErrorIs(t, err, vault.ErrUnlockerNotFound)
+	require.EqualError(t, err, "failed to unlock vault: "+
+		"failed to get long-term key: failed to get current unlocker: "+
+		"failed to read unlocker metadata: "+cause.Error()+mnemonicAdvice)
+
+	c.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+	require.NoError(t, c.UnlockersAdd("passphrase", discardCmd()))
+
+	c.Mnemonic = nil
+	assert.Equal(t, "value", getSecret(t, c, "x"))
+}
+
 // TestPassphraseNotReadNamesNoMnemonic runs `secret get x` on the built
-// binary without SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE and with a stdin that is not a
+// binary without SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE and in a new session, which has no
 // terminal, so the passphrase cannot be read. The unlocker was not tried,
 // and adding one would need a passphrase read the same way, so the error
 // is the cause alone, without the advice to use the mnemonic.
@@ -254,15 +341,16 @@ func TestPassphraseNotReadNamesNoMnemonic(t *testing.T) {
 		"PATH=" + os.Getenv("PATH"),
 		"HOME=" + os.Getenv("HOME"),
 	}
+	cmd.SysProcAttr = &syscall.SysProcAttr{Setsid: true}
 
 	output, err := cmd.CombinedOutput()
 	require.Error(t, err)
 
 	assert.Equal(t, "Error: failed to unlock vault: "+
 		"failed to get long-term key: failed to get unlocker identity: "+
-		"failed to read passphrase: stdin is not a terminal (piped input or "+
+		"failed to read passphrase: there is no terminal to ask on. Please "+
-		"script). Please set the SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE environment variable or "+
+		"set the SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE environment variable or run "+
-		"run interactively\n", string(output))
+		"interactively\n", string(output))
 }
 
 // TestCryptoUnlockFailureNamesMnemonic checks that `secret encrypt` and

internal/cli/unlockers.go

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"log"
 	"maps"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -66,12 +67,13 @@ func getDefaultGPGKey() (string, error) {
 
 	output, err := cmd.Output()
 	if err == nil {
-		for line := range strings.SplitSeq(string(output), "\n") {
+		defaultKey, parseErr := parseDefaultGPGKey(string(output))
-			fields := strings.Split(line, ":")
+		if parseErr != nil {
-			if len(fields) > 9 && fields[0] == "default-key" && fields[9] != "" {
+			return "", parseErr
-				// The default key is in field 10 (index 9)
+		}
-				return fields[9], nil
+
-			}
+		if defaultKey != "" {
+			return defaultKey, nil
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -98,11 +100,38 @@ func getDefaultGPGKey() (string, error) {
 	return "", errNoGPGSecretKeys
 }
 
+// parseDefaultGPGKey returns the default-key value in the output of
+// `gpgconf --list-options gpg`, or "" when gpg.conf sets none. gpgconf(1)
+// prints a string value with a leading `"` and percent-escaped.
+func parseDefaultGPGKey(gpgconfOutput string) (string, error) {
+	for line := range strings.SplitSeq(gpgconfOutput, "\n") {
+		fields := strings.Split(line, ":")
+		if len(fields) > 9 && fields[0] == "default-key" && fields[9] != "" {
+			// The default key is in field 10 (index 9)
+			keyID, err := url.PathUnescape(strings.TrimPrefix(fields[9], `"`))
+			if err != nil {
+				return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to decode gpgconf default-key %s: %w",
+					fields[9], err)
+			}
+
+			return keyID, nil
+		}
+	}
+
+	return "", nil
+}
+
 func newUnlockerCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	cmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "unlocker",
 		Short: "Manage unlockers",
 		Long:  `Create, list, and remove unlockers for the current vault.`,
+		// Cobra checks Args only on a command that has a RunE; without
+		// one, an unknown subcommand prints this help and exits 0.
+		Args: cobra.NoArgs,
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
+			return cmd.Help()
+		},
 	}
 
 	cmd.AddCommand(newUnlockerListCmd())
@@ -222,8 +251,11 @@ func newUnlockerRemoveCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Long: `Remove an unlocker from the current vault. Asks for ` +
 			`confirmation first, saying whether it is the vault's last ` +
 			`unlocker; when stdin is not a terminal, fails unless --force ` +
-			`is given. Warning: Without unlockers and without your ` +
+			`is given. Removing the current unlocker makes another of the ` +
-			`mnemonic, vault data will be permanently inaccessible.`,
+			`vault's unlockers current, if it has one that ` +
+			`'secret unlocker select' accepts. Warning: Without ` +
+			`unlockers and without your mnemonic, vault data will be ` +
+			`permanently inaccessible.`,
 		Args:              cobra.ExactArgs(1),
 		ValidArgsFunction: getUnlockerIDsCompletionFunc(cli.fs, cli.stateDir),
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
@@ -288,7 +320,8 @@ func (cli *Instance) UnlockersList(jsonOutput bool) error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	var unlockers []UnlockerInfo
+	// Not nil, so that a vault with no unlockers prints [] in JSON, not null
+	unlockers := make([]UnlockerInfo, 0, len(unlockerMetadata))
 
 	for _, unlockerID := range slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(unlockerMetadata)) {
 		metadata := unlockerMetadata[unlockerID]
@@ -323,22 +356,25 @@ func (cli *Instance) printUnlockersJSON(
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to marshal JSON: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	cli.cmd.Println(string(jsonBytes))
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(cli.cmd.OutOrStdout(), string(jsonBytes))
 
 	return nil
 }
 
 // printUnlockersTable prints unlockers in a formatted table
 func (cli *Instance) printUnlockersTable(unlockers []UnlockerInfo) error {
+	out := cli.cmd.OutOrStdout()
+
 	if len(unlockers) == 0 {
-		cli.cmd.Println("No unlockers found in current vault.")
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(out, "No unlockers found in current vault.")
-		cli.cmd.Println("Run 'secret unlocker add passphrase' to create one.")
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(out, "Run 'secret unlocker add passphrase' to create one.")
 
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	cli.cmd.Printf("  %-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n", "UNLOCKER ID", "TYPE", "CREATED", "FLAGS")
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "  %-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n",
-	cli.cmd.Printf("  %-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n",
+		"UNLOCKER ID", "TYPE", "CREATED", "FLAGS")
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "  %-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n",
 		strings.Repeat("-", unlockerIDWidth), strings.Repeat("-", unlockerTypeWidth),
 		strings.Repeat("-", unlockerDateWidth), strings.Repeat("-", unlockerFlagsWidth))
 
@@ -353,7 +389,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) printUnlockersTable(unlockers []UnlockerInfo) error {
 			prefix = "* "
 		}
 
-		cli.cmd.Printf("%s%-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n",
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "%s%-40s %-12s %-20s %s\n",
 			prefix,
 			unlocker.ID,
 			unlocker.Type,
@@ -361,7 +397,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) printUnlockersTable(unlockers []UnlockerInfo) error {
 			flags)
 	}
 
-	cli.cmd.Printf("\nTotal: %d unlocker(s)\n", len(unlockers))
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "\nTotal: %d unlocker(s)\n", len(unlockers))
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -411,15 +447,20 @@ func (cli *Instance) addPassphraseUnlocker(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 	// long-term key
 	vlt.Mnemonic, vlt.UnlockPassphrase = cli.Mnemonic, cli.UnlockPassphrase
 
-	// The new unlocker gets the passphrase from the environment, which also
+	// The new passphrase is asked for even when SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE is
-	// unlocks the current passphrase unlocker, else the one entered here
+	// set, and the variable unlocks the vault. With no terminal to ask on,
-	passphraseBuffer := cli.UnlockPassphrase
+	// the new unlocker takes the passphrase in the variable.
-	if passphraseBuffer == nil {
+	fromVariable := false
-		// Use secure passphrase input with confirmation
+
-		passphraseBuffer, err = readSecurePassphrase("Enter passphrase for unlocker: ")
+	passphraseBuffer, err := readSecurePassphrase("Enter passphrase for unlocker: ")
-		if err != nil {
+
-			return err
+	switch {
-		}
+	case errors.Is(err, secret.ErrNoTerminal) && cli.UnlockPassphrase != nil:
+		passphraseBuffer = cli.UnlockPassphrase
+		fromVariable = true
+	case err != nil:
+		return err
+	default:
 		defer passphraseBuffer.Destroy()
 	}
 
@@ -430,6 +471,12 @@ func (cli *Instance) addPassphraseUnlocker(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
 
 	cmd.Printf("Created passphrase unlocker: %s\n", passphraseUnlocker.GetID())
 
+	if fromVariable {
+		cmd.Printf("The new unlocker takes its passphrase from %s, since "+
+			"there is no terminal to ask for a new one on\n",
+			secret.EnvUnlockPassphrase)
+	}
+
 	// CreatePassphraseUnlocker has already made it the current unlocker
 	cmd.Printf("Automatically selected as current unlocker\n")
 
@@ -612,13 +659,17 @@ func (cli *Instance) removeUnlocker(
 			"have your mnemonic phrase to access this vault again!")
 	}
 
-	err := found.vlt.RemoveUnlocker(unlockerID)
+	newCurrentID, err := found.vlt.RemoveUnlocker(unlockerID)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
 	cmd.Printf("Removed unlocker '%s'\n", unlockerID)
 
+	if newCurrentID != "" {
+		cmd.Printf("Switched current unlocker to '%s'\n", newCurrentID)
+	}
+
 	return nil
 }
 

internal/cli/unlockers_add_test.go

@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 package cli
 
 import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
@@ -83,6 +85,77 @@ func TestAddPGPUnlocker(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestAddPGPUnlockerDefaultKey is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/141: with default-key set in
+// gpg.conf and no --keyid, `secret unlocker add pgp` uses that key.
+// gpg.conf names the key by its user ID, and the printed key ID must be that
+// user ID. The first secret key, which is used when gpg.conf sets no
+// default-key, prints as a hex key ID.
+func TestAddPGPUnlockerDefaultKey(t *testing.T) {
+	newTestGPGKey(t)
+	// The key comes from neither --keyid nor the environment.
+	t.Setenv(secret.EnvGPGKeyID, "")
+
+	gpgConf := filepath.Join(os.Getenv("GNUPGHOME"), "gpg.conf")
+	//nolint:gosec // G703: GNUPGHOME is the directory newTestGPGKey made
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(gpgConf,
+		[]byte("default-key "+unreadableTestGPGUserID+"\n"), 0o600))
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, listTestStateDir, listTestVaultName,
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	instance, cmd := newTestInstance(fs)
+	instance.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+
+	var output bytes.Buffer
+	cmd.SetOut(&output)
+
+	require.NoError(t, instance.UnlockersAdd(unlockerTypePGP, cmd))
+	assert.Contains(t, output.String(),
+		"Using default GPG key: "+unreadableTestGPGUserID+"\n")
+}
+
+// TestParseDefaultGPGKey is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/141: gpgconf prints the
+// default-key value with a leading `"` and percent-escaped, and the key ID
+// is that value decoded.
+func TestParseDefaultGPGKey(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	// gpgconfLine is the default-key line of `gpgconf --list-options gpg`
+	// up to the value, its last field.
+	const gpgconfLine = "default-key:0:0:use NAME as default secret key:" +
+		"1:1:NAME:::"
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name  string
+		value string
+		want  string
+	}{
+		{
+			"fingerprint", `"56163D7F3FAFF709608855BEC1A360216D007F41`,
+			"56163D7F3FAFF709608855BEC1A360216D007F41",
+		},
+		{
+			"user ID with a comma", `"Doe%2c Alice <alice@example.com>`,
+			"Doe, Alice <alice@example.com>",
+		},
+		{"no default-key in gpg.conf", "", ""},
+	}
+
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		t.Run(test.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			t.Parallel()
+
+			keyID, err := parseDefaultGPGKey(gpgconfLine + test.value + "\n")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			assert.Equal(t, test.want, keyID)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 // TestAddPGPUnlockerUnknownKey asserts that adding a PGP unlocker for a key
 // the keyring does not hold fails at looking up the key's fingerprint and
 // leaves no new unlocker directory. The error must come from the lookup: a

internal/cli/unlockers_list_test.go

@@ -1,13 +1,14 @@
 // Unlocker List Tests
 //
-// Tests for `secret unlocker list` behavior when an unlocker's metadata
+// Tests for `secret unlocker list`:
-// cannot be read or used:
 //
 //   - TestUnlockersListToleratesCorruptMetadata: one unlocker's corrupt
 //     metadata does not stop the others from being listed.
 //   - TestUnlockersListSkipsUnreadableMetadata: an unlocker whose metadata
 //     file cannot be checked for or read is left out, and the other is
 //     still listed.
+//   - TestUnlockersListEmptyJSON: a vault with no unlockers lists them as
+//     an empty JSON list.
 
 //nolint:testpackage // white-box test of unexported internals
 package cli
@@ -321,3 +322,36 @@ func TestUnlockersListSkipsUnreadableMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+// TestUnlockersListEmptyJSON is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/148: listing the unlockers of a
+// vault that has none, as after its last unlocker is removed, printed
+// "unlockers": null in JSON form instead of an empty list.
+func TestUnlockersListEmptyJSON(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	vaultDir := filepath.Join(listTestStateDir, "vaults.d", listTestVaultName)
+
+	require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(
+		fs, filepath.Join(listTestStateDir, "currentvault"),
+		[]byte(listTestVaultName), listTestFilePerm,
+	))
+	require.NoError(t, fs.MkdirAll(
+		filepath.Join(vaultDir, listTestUnlockersDirName), listTestDirPerm,
+	))
+
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+
+	cmd := &cobra.Command{}
+	cmd.SetOut(&buf)
+
+	instance := &Instance{fs: fs, stateDir: listTestStateDir, cmd: cmd}
+	require.NoError(t, instance.UnlockersList(true))
+
+	var decoded map[string]any
+
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(buf.Bytes(), &decoded))
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{}, decoded["unlockers"],
+		"no unlockers must be printed as [], not %s", buf.String())
+}

internal/cli/unlockers_remove_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+//nolint:testpackage // white-box test of unexported internals
+package cli
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
+)
+
+// TestUnlockerRemoveCurrent is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/137. A vault has a passphrase
+// unlocker and a PGP unlocker, the current one. Removing the PGP unlocker
+// makes the passphrase unlocker current and says so, and the vault then
+// opens through it. Removing the passphrase unlocker too removes
+// current-unlocker.
+//
+// The second case also gives the vault the unlocker directory "odd", whose
+// metadata names a type that `secret unlocker select` refuses, and which
+// sorts before the passphrase unlocker: neither removal makes it current.
+//
+//nolint:paralleltest // t.Setenv (GNUPGHOME) forbids parallel tests
+func TestUnlockerRemoveCurrent(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name    string
+		withOdd bool
+	}{
+		{name: "two unlockers", withOdd: false},
+		{name: "and the directory odd", withOdd: true},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			newTestGPGKey(t)
+
+			passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+			t.Cleanup(passphrase.Destroy)
+
+			fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+			vlt, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, listTestStateDir,
+				listTestVaultName, testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			passphraseUnlocker, err := vlt.CreatePassphraseUnlocker(passphrase)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			if tt.withOdd {
+				require.NoError(t, afero.WriteFile(fs,
+					filepath.Join(testVaultDir(listTestVaultName), "unlockers.d",
+						"odd", "unlocker-metadata.json"),
+					[]byte(`{"type": "odd"}`), secret.FilePerms))
+			}
+
+			instance, cmd := newTestInstance(fs)
+			instance.UnlockPassphrase = passphrase
+
+			cmd.Flags().String("keyid", unreadableTestGPGUserID, "")
+			require.NoError(t, instance.UnlockersAdd(unlockerTypePGP, cmd))
+
+			pgpUnlocker, err := vlt.GetCurrentUnlocker()
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.Equal(t, unlockerTypePGP, pgpUnlocker.GetType())
+
+			var output bytes.Buffer
+
+			cmd.SetOut(&output)
+			require.NoError(t,
+				instance.UnlockersRemove(pgpUnlocker.GetID(), true, cmd))
+			assert.Contains(t, output.String(),
+				"Switched current unlocker to '"+passphraseUnlocker.GetID()+"'")
+
+			reopened := vault.NewVault(fs, listTestStateDir, listTestVaultName)
+			reopened.UnlockPassphrase = passphrase
+
+			_, err = reopened.GetOrDeriveLongTermKey()
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			require.NoError(t,
+				instance.UnlockersRemove(passphraseUnlocker.GetID(), true, cmd))
+
+			exists, err := afero.Exists(fs, filepath.Join(
+				testVaultDir(listTestVaultName), "current-unlocker"))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			assert.False(t, exists,
+				"current-unlocker is left after the passphrase unlocker")
+		})
+	}
+}

internal/cli/unreadable_dir_test.go

@@ -371,19 +371,3 @@ func TestRemoveSecretAbortsWhenVersionsUnreadable(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	assert.True(t, exists, "the secret must not be removed")
 }
-
-// TestVaultImportAbortsWhenPubKeyUnreadable asserts that a mnemonic import
-// stops when whether the vault already has a long-term key cannot be
-// determined.
-func TestVaultImportAbortsWhenPubKeyUnreadable(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	base := newListTestVault(t, 1)
-	instance, cmd := newTestInstance(&statFailFs{
-		Fs: base, path: filepath.Join(testVaultDir(listTestVaultName), "pub.age"),
-	})
-
-	err := instance.importMnemonic(cmd, listTestVaultName)
-
-	require.ErrorIs(t, err, errStatFailed)
-}

internal/cli/vault.go

@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@ import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"slices"
 	"strings"
-	"time"
 
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
@@ -16,19 +15,12 @@ import (
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/bip39"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
-	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/pkg/agehd"
 )
 
 // Sentinel errors for vault operations
 var (
 	errMnemonicEmpty         = errors.New("mnemonic cannot be empty")
 	errInvalidMnemonicPhrase = errors.New("invalid BIP39 mnemonic phrase")
-	errVaultHasLongTermKey   = errors.New(
-		"already has a long-term key configured")
-	errMnemonicEnvNotSet = errors.New(
-		"SB_SECRET_MNEMONIC environment variable not set")
-	errPassphraseEnvNotSet = errors.New(
-		"SB_UNLOCK_PASSPHRASE environment variable not set")
 	errCannotRemoveLastVault = errors.New("cannot remove the last vault")
 )
 
@@ -37,12 +29,17 @@ func newVaultCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Use:   "vault",
 		Short: "Manage vaults",
 		Long:  `Create, list, and select vaults for organizing secrets.`,
+		// Cobra checks Args only on a command that has a RunE; without
+		// one, an unknown subcommand prints this help and exits 0.
+		Args: cobra.NoArgs,
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
+			return cmd.Help()
+		},
 	}
 
 	cmd.AddCommand(newVaultListCmd())
 	cmd.AddCommand(newVaultCreateCmd())
 	cmd.AddCommand(newVaultSelectCmd())
-	cmd.AddCommand(newVaultImportCmd())
 	cmd.AddCommand(newVaultRemoveCmd())
 
 	return cmd
@@ -111,38 +108,6 @@ func newVaultSelectCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	}
 }
 
-func newVaultImportCmd() *cobra.Command {
-	cli, err := NewCLIInstance()
-	if err != nil {
-		log.Fatalf("failed to initialize CLI: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	return &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "import <vault-name>",
-		Short: "Import a mnemonic into a vault",
-		Long: `Import a BIP39 mnemonic phrase into the specified vault ` +
-			`(default if not specified).`,
-		Args:              cobra.MaximumNArgs(1),
-		ValidArgsFunction: getVaultNamesCompletionFunc(cli.fs, cli.stateDir),
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			vaultName := "default"
-			if len(args) > 0 {
-				vaultName = args[0]
-			}
-
-			cli, err := NewCLIInstance()
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize CLI: %w", err)
-			}
-
-			destroySecrets := cli.readSecretEnv()
-			defer destroySecrets()
-
-			return cli.VaultImport(cmd, vaultName)
-		},
-	}
-}
-
 func newVaultRemoveCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	cli, err := NewCLIInstance()
 	if err != nil {
@@ -186,6 +151,8 @@ func (cli *Instance) ListVaults(cmd *cobra.Command, jsonOutput bool) error {
 		return err
 	}
 
+	out := cmd.OutOrStdout()
+
 	if jsonOutput { //nolint:nestif // Separate JSON and text output formatting logic
 		// Get current vault name for context
 		currentVault := ""
@@ -205,13 +172,13 @@ func (cli *Instance) ListVaults(cmd *cobra.Command, jsonOutput bool) error {
 			return err
 		}
 
-		cmd.Println(string(jsonBytes))
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(out, string(jsonBytes))
 	} else {
 		// Text output
-		cmd.Println("Available vaults:")
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(out, "Available vaults:")
 
 		if len(vaults) == 0 {
-			cmd.Println("  (none)")
+			_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(out, "  (none)")
 		} else {
 			// Try to get current vault for marking
 			currentVault := ""
@@ -223,9 +190,9 @@ func (cli *Instance) ListVaults(cmd *cobra.Command, jsonOutput bool) error {
 
 			for _, vaultName := range vaults {
 				if vaultName == currentVault {
-					cmd.Printf("  %s (current)\n", vaultName)
+					_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "  %s (current)\n", vaultName)
 				} else {
-					cmd.Printf("  %s\n", vaultName)
+					_, _ = fmt.Fprintf(out, "  %s\n", vaultName)
 				}
 			}
 		}
@@ -265,6 +232,12 @@ func (cli *Instance) CreateVault(cmd *cobra.Command, name string) error {
 	}
 	defer release()
 
+	// Refuse an invalid name or an existing vault before asking for anything
+	err = vault.CheckNewVaultName(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, name)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
 	mnemonic, cleanupMnemonic, err := cli.promptMnemonic()
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -334,196 +307,6 @@ func (cli *Instance) SelectVault(cmd *cobra.Command, name string) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-// vaultImportPreflight verifies the vault exists without a long-term key
-// and returns the vault directory, public key path, and validated mnemonic
-func (cli *Instance) vaultImportPreflight(
-	vlt *vault.Vault, vaultName string,
-) (string, string, string, error) {
-	// Check if vault exists
-	vaultDir, err := vlt.GetDirectory()
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", "", err
-	}
-
-	exists, err := afero.DirExists(cli.fs, vaultDir)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("failed to check if vault exists: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	if !exists {
-		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("vault '%s' %w",
-			vaultName, vault.ErrVaultNotFound)
-	}
-
-	// Check if vault already has a public key
-	pubKeyPath := vaultDir + "/pub.age"
-
-	exists, err = afero.Exists(cli.fs, pubKeyPath)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("failed to check %s: %w", pubKeyPath, err)
-	}
-
-	if exists {
-		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("vault '%s' %w",
-			vaultName, errVaultHasLongTermKey)
-	}
-
-	// Get mnemonic from environment
-	if cli.Mnemonic == nil {
-		return "", "", "", errMnemonicEnvNotSet
-	}
-
-	mnemonic := cli.Mnemonic.String()
-
-	// Validate the mnemonic
-	mnemonicWords := strings.Fields(mnemonic)
-	secret.Debug("Validating BIP39 mnemonic", "word_count", len(mnemonicWords))
-
-	if !bip39.IsMnemonicValid(mnemonic) {
-		return "", "", "", errInvalidMnemonicPhrase
-	}
-
-	return vaultDir, pubKeyPath, mnemonic, nil
-}
-
-// updateVaultImportMetadata stores the derivation info in vault metadata
-func updateVaultImportMetadata(
-	fs afero.Fs, vaultDir string, derivationIndex uint32,
-	publicKeyHash, familyHash string,
-) error {
-	// Load existing metadata
-	existingMetadata, err := vault.LoadVaultMetadata(fs, vaultDir)
-	if err != nil {
-		// If metadata doesn't exist, create new
-		existingMetadata = &vault.Metadata{
-			CreatedAt: time.Now(),
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Update metadata with new derivation info
-	existingMetadata.DerivationIndex = derivationIndex
-	existingMetadata.PublicKeyHash = publicKeyHash
-	existingMetadata.MnemonicFamilyHash = familyHash
-
-	err = vault.SaveVaultMetadata(fs, vaultDir, existingMetadata)
-	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to save vault metadata", "error", err)
-
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to save vault metadata: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	secret.Debug("Saved vault metadata with derivation index and public key hash")
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-// VaultImport imports a mnemonic into a specific vault, holding the state
-// directory lock while importMnemonic runs
-func (cli *Instance) VaultImport(cmd *cobra.Command, vaultName string) error {
-	err := vault.ValidateVaultName(vaultName)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	release, err := vault.LockStateDir(cli.fs, cli.stateDir)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer release()
-
-	return cli.importMnemonic(cmd, vaultName)
-}
-
-// importMnemonic gives the vault a long-term key derived from the mnemonic
-// and a passphrase unlocker
-func (cli *Instance) importMnemonic(cmd *cobra.Command, vaultName string) error {
-	secret.Debug("Importing mnemonic into vault",
-		"vault_name", vaultName, "state_dir", cli.stateDir)
-
-	// Get the specific vault by name
-	vlt := vault.NewVault(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, vaultName)
-
-	vaultDir, pubKeyPath, mnemonic, err := cli.vaultImportPreflight(vlt, vaultName)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	// Get the next available derivation index for this mnemonic
-	derivationIndex, err := vault.GetNextDerivationIndex(cli.fs, cli.stateDir, mnemonic)
-	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to get next derivation index", "error", err)
-
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get next derivation index: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	secret.Debug("Using derivation index", "index", derivationIndex)
-
-	// Derive long-term key from mnemonic with the appropriate index
-	secret.Debug("Deriving long-term key from mnemonic", "index", derivationIndex)
-
-	ltIdentity, err := agehd.DeriveIdentity(mnemonic, derivationIndex)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to derive long-term key: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	// Store long-term public key in vault
-	ltPublicKey := ltIdentity.Recipient().String()
-	secret.Debug("Storing long-term public key",
-		"pubkey", ltPublicKey, "vault_dir", vaultDir)
-
-	err = secret.WriteFileAtomic(cli.fs, pubKeyPath, []byte(ltPublicKey))
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to store long-term public key: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	// Calculate public key hash from the actual derivation index being used
-	// This is used to verify that the derived key matches what was stored
-	publicKeyHash := vault.ComputeDoubleSHA256([]byte(ltIdentity.Recipient().String()))
-
-	// Calculate family hash from index 0 (same for all vaults with this
-	// mnemonic). This is used to identify which vaults belong to the same
-	// mnemonic family.
-	identity0, err := agehd.DeriveIdentity(mnemonic, 0)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to derive identity for index 0: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	familyHash := vault.ComputeDoubleSHA256([]byte(identity0.Recipient().String()))
-
-	err = updateVaultImportMetadata(
-		cli.fs, vaultDir, derivationIndex, publicKeyHash, familyHash)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	// Get passphrase from environment variable
-	passphraseBuffer := cli.UnlockPassphrase
-	if passphraseBuffer == nil {
-		return errPassphraseEnvNotSet
-	}
-
-	secret.Debug("Using unlock passphrase from environment variable")
-
-	// Unlock the vault with the derived long-term key
-	vlt.Unlock(ltIdentity)
-
-	// Create passphrase-protected unlocker
-	secret.Debug("Creating passphrase-protected unlocker")
-
-	passphraseUnlocker, err := vlt.CreatePassphraseUnlocker(passphraseBuffer)
-	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to create unlocker", "error", err)
-
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create unlocker: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	cmd.Printf("Successfully imported mnemonic into vault '%s'\n", vaultName)
-	cmd.Printf("Long-term public key: %s\n", ltPublicKey)
-	cmd.Printf("Unlocker ID: %s\n", passphraseUnlocker.GetID())
-
-	return nil
-}
-
 // countVaultSecrets returns the number of secrets in the vault directory
 func (cli *Instance) countVaultSecrets(vaultDir string) (int, error) {
 	secretsDir := filepath.Join(vaultDir, "secrets.d")

internal/cli/vault_list_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package cli_test
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/cli"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
+)
+
+// TestVaultListEmptyJSON is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/148: listing the vaults when
+// vaults.d holds none printed "vaults": null in JSON form instead of an
+// empty list.
+func TestVaultListEmptyJSON(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	require.NoError(t, fs.MkdirAll(
+		filepath.Join(testStateDir, "vaults.d"), secret.DirPerms,
+	))
+
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+
+	cmd := &cobra.Command{}
+	cmd.SetOut(&buf)
+
+	c := cli.NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, testStateDir)
+	require.NoError(t, c.ListVaults(cmd, true))
+
+	var decoded map[string]any
+
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(buf.Bytes(), &decoded))
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{}, decoded["vaults"],
+		"no vaults must be printed as [], not %s", buf.String())
+}

internal/cli/version.go

@@ -43,6 +43,12 @@ func VersionCommands(cli *Instance) *cobra.Command {
 		Short: "Manage secret versions",
 		Long: "Commands for managing secret versions including listing, " +
 			"promoting, and retrieving specific versions",
+		// Cobra checks Args only on a command that has a RunE; without
+		// one, an unknown subcommand prints this help and exits 0.
+		Args: cobra.NoArgs,
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
+			return cmd.Help()
+		},
 	}
 
 	// List versions command
@@ -64,8 +70,10 @@ func VersionCommands(cli *Instance) *cobra.Command {
 	promoteCmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "promote <secret-name> <version>",
 		Short: "Promote a specific version to current",
-		Long: "Updates the current symlink to point to the specified " +
+		Long: "Rewrites the secret's current file to name the specified " +
-			"version without modifying timestamps",
+			"version. The versions' own times are left unchanged; secret " +
+			"list then gives the time of the promote as the secret's last " +
+			"update.",
 		Args: cobra.ExactArgs(2), //nolint:mnd // secret-name and version args
 		ValidArgsFunction: func(
 			cmd *cobra.Command, args []string, toComplete string,
@@ -167,7 +175,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) ListVersions(cmd *cobra.Command, secretName string) error {
 	}
 
 	if len(versions) == 0 {
-		cmd.Println("No versions found")
+		_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(cmd.OutOrStdout(), "No versions found")
 
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -227,9 +235,13 @@ func printVersionRow(
 	}
 
 	// Determine status
-	status := "expired"
+	status := "inactive"
-	if version == currentVersion {
+
+	switch {
+	case version == currentVersion:
 		status = "current"
+	case sv.Metadata.NotAfter != nil && sv.Metadata.NotAfter.Before(time.Now()):
+		status = "expired"
 	}
 
 	// Format timestamps
@@ -291,7 +303,7 @@ func (cli *Instance) PromoteVersion(
 			version, vault.ErrVersionNotFound, secretName)
 	}
 
-	// Update the current symlink using the proper function
+	// Rewrite the secret's current file to name the version
 	err = secret.SetCurrentVersion(cli.fs, secretDir, version)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to update current version: %w", err)

internal/cli/version_test.go

@@ -5,9 +5,14 @@
 // - TestListVersionsCommand: Tests `secret version list` command output
 // - TestListVersionsNonExistentSecret: Tests error handling for missing secrets
 // - TestPromoteVersionCommand: Tests `secret version promote` command
+// - TestListVersionsStatusAfterPromote: Tests each version's status after
+//   promoting an older version
 // - TestPromoteNonExistentVersion: Tests error handling for invalid promotion
+// - TestPromoteHelpSaysCurrentFileIsRewritten: Tests `secret version promote
+//   --help` text
 // - TestGetSecretWithVersion: Tests `secret get --version` flag functionality
 // - TestGetSecretWritesBinaryValue: Tests `secret get` output of binary values
+// - TestGetSecretReturnsWriteError: Tests `secret get` when stdout fails
 // - TestVersionCommandStructure: Tests command structure and help text
 // - TestListVersionsEmptyOutput: Tests edge case with no versions
 //
@@ -20,6 +25,7 @@ package cli
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
@@ -240,6 +246,66 @@ func TestPromoteVersionCommand(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, []byte("version-1"), promoted.Bytes())
 }
 
+func TestListVersionsStatusAfterPromote(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	cli := NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, testStateDir)
+	cli.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+
+	setupTestVault(t, fs)
+
+	vlt, err := vault.GetCurrentVault(fs, testStateDir)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	vlt.Mnemonic = cli.Mnemonic
+
+	addTestSecret(t, vlt, []byte("version-1"), false)
+	addTestSecret(t, vlt, []byte("version-2"), true)
+	addTestSecret(t, vlt, []byte("version-3"), true)
+
+	vaultDir, err := vlt.GetDirectory()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// Newest first
+	versions, err := secret.ListVersions(fs,
+		filepath.Join(vaultDir, "secrets.d", "test%secret"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, versions, 3)
+
+	newest, middle, oldest := versions[0], versions[1], versions[2]
+
+	cmd := newRootCmd()
+
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	cmd.SetOut(&buf)
+	cmd.SetErr(&buf)
+
+	err = cli.PromoteVersion(cmd, "test/secret", oldest)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	buf.Reset()
+
+	err = cli.ListVersions(cmd, "test/secret")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// STATUS is the fourth field of a row, since CREATED is a date and a time
+	statuses := map[string]string{}
+
+	for line := range strings.SplitSeq(buf.String(), "\n") {
+		fields := strings.Fields(line)
+		if len(fields) > 3 {
+			statuses[fields[0]] = fields[3]
+		}
+	}
+
+	assert.Equal(t, "current", statuses[oldest])
+	// Its NOT_AFTER was set when the newest version was added
+	assert.Equal(t, "expired", statuses[middle])
+	// It has no NOT_AFTER
+	assert.Equal(t, "inactive", statuses[newest])
+}
+
 func TestPromoteNonExistentVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
@@ -268,6 +334,23 @@ func TestPromoteNonExistentVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	require.ErrorIs(t, err, vault.ErrVersionNotFound)
 }
 
+// TestPromoteHelpSaysCurrentFileIsRewritten is a regression test for
+// https://git.eeqj.de/sneak/secret/issues/153: `secret version promote
+// --help` said it updates a symlink, but promote rewrites the secret's
+// `current` file, which is a plain file.
+//
+//nolint:paralleltest // executes the CLI in-process and sets the environment
+func TestPromoteHelpSaysCurrentFileIsRewritten(t *testing.T) {
+	env := map[string]string{secret.EnvStateDir: t.TempDir()}
+
+	output, err := ExecuteCommandInProcess(
+		[]string{"version", "promote", "--help"}, "", env)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	assert.NotContains(t, output, "symlink")
+	assert.Contains(t, output, "current file")
+}
+
 func TestGetSecretWithVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
@@ -360,6 +443,45 @@ func TestGetSecretWritesBinaryValue(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, value, buf.Bytes())
 }
 
+// TestGetSecretReturnsWriteError checks that `secret get`, with and without
+// a version, returns the error of a failed write of the value.
+func TestGetSecretReturnsWriteError(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	cli := NewCLIInstanceWithStateDir(fs, testStateDir)
+	cli.Mnemonic = testMnemonicBuffer(t)
+
+	setupTestVault(t, fs)
+
+	vlt, err := vault.GetCurrentVault(fs, testStateDir)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	addTestSecret(t, vlt, []byte("value"), false)
+
+	vaultDir, err := vlt.GetDirectory()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	versions, err := secret.ListVersions(fs,
+		filepath.Join(vaultDir, "secrets.d", "test%secret"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, versions, 1)
+
+	// Stdout is a file closed before the value is written to it
+	out, err := os.Create(filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "stdout"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, out.Close())
+
+	cmd := newRootCmd()
+	cmd.SetOut(out)
+
+	err = cli.GetSecret(cmd, "test/secret")
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, os.ErrClosed)
+
+	err = cli.GetSecretWithVersion(cmd, "test/secret", versions[0])
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, os.ErrClosed)
+}
+
 //nolint:paralleltest // reads process environment to determine the state dir
 func TestVersionCommandStructure(t *testing.T) {
 	// Test that version commands are properly structured

internal/secret/constants.go

@@ -17,6 +17,10 @@ const (
 	// EnvGPGKeyID is the environment variable for providing the GPG key ID
 	EnvGPGKeyID = "SB_GPG_KEY_ID"
 
+	// TerminalPath opens the controlling terminal of the process that opens
+	// it, where the passphrase and mnemonic prompts ask.
+	TerminalPath = "/dev/tty"
+
 	// UnlockerTimeFormat is the layout of the time, in UTC, in the name of a
 	// new unlocker's directory. It runs to the nanosecond, so that every new
 	// unlocker, even one added right after another, gets a directory of its

internal/secret/crypto.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"os"
-	"syscall"
 	"unsafe"
 
 	"filippo.io/age"
@@ -16,13 +15,13 @@ import (
 
 var (
 	errNilPassphraseBuffer = errors.New("passphrase buffer is nil")
-	errStdinNotTerminal    = errors.New(
+	errNothingEntered      = errors.New("nothing was entered")
-		"stdin is not a terminal (piped input or script)")
-	errStderrNotTerminal = errors.New(
-		"stderr is not a terminal (running in non-interactive mode)")
-	errNothingEntered = errors.New("nothing was entered")
 )
 
+// ErrNoTerminal is wrapped in the error of ReadPassphrase and ReadMnemonic
+// when the process has no controlling terminal to ask on.
+var ErrNoTerminal = errors.New("there is no terminal to ask on")
+
 // ErrMnemonicNotRead is wrapped in every error of ReadMnemonic: there is no
 // terminal to read the mnemonic from, reading it failed, or it was empty.
 var ErrMnemonicNotRead = errors.New("failed to read mnemonic")
@@ -193,38 +192,33 @@ func ReadMnemonic(prompt string) (*memguard.LockedBuffer, error) {
 	return readFromTerminal(prompt, ErrMnemonicNotRead, EnvMnemonic)
 }
 
-// readFromTerminal reads input from the terminal without echoing it. Every
+// readFromTerminal asks on the controlling terminal and reads the answer
-// error it returns wraps notRead; without a terminal, the error says to set
+// there without echoing it, whatever stdin is: in
-// envVar instead.
+// `echo value | secret add name --force`, stdin is a pipe. Every error it
+// returns wraps notRead; without a terminal, the error says to set envVar
+// instead.
 func readFromTerminal(
 	prompt string, notRead error, envVar string,
 ) (*memguard.LockedBuffer, error) {
-	// Check if stdin is a terminal
+	terminal, err := os.OpenFile(TerminalPath, os.O_RDWR, 0)
-	if !term.IsTerminal(syscall.Stdin) {
+	if err != nil {
-		// Not a terminal - never read secrets from piped input
+		Debug("Failed to open the controlling terminal", "error", err)
-		// for security reasons
+
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf(
 			"%w: %w. Please set the %s environment variable or run interactively",
-			notRead, errStdinNotTerminal, envVar)
+			notRead, ErrNoTerminal, envVar)
 	}
+	defer func() { _ = terminal.Close() }()
 
-	// stdin is a terminal, check if stderr is also a terminal for
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprint(terminal, prompt)
-	// interactive prompting
-	if !term.IsTerminal(syscall.Stderr) {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("%w: %w. Please set the %s environment variable",
-			notRead, errStderrNotTerminal, envVar)
-	}
 
-	// Both stdin and stderr are terminals - use secure password reading
+	input, err := term.ReadPassword(int(terminal.Fd()))
-	fmt.Fprint(os.Stderr, prompt) // Write prompt to stderr, not stdout
-
-	input, err := term.ReadPassword(syscall.Stdin)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("%w: %w", notRead, err)
 	}
 
-	// Print newline to stderr since ReadPassword doesn't echo
+	// The newline typed after the input, which ReadPassword did not echo
-	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr)
+	_, _ = fmt.Fprintln(terminal)
 
 	if len(input) == 0 {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("%w: %w", notRead, errNothingEntered)

internal/secret/passphraseunlocker.go

@@ -16,6 +16,10 @@ import (
 // empty. A passphrase unlocker that fails with it was not tried.
 var ErrPassphraseNotRead = errors.New("failed to read passphrase")
 
+// ErrWrongPassphrase is wrapped in the error of GetIdentity when the
+// passphrase does not decrypt the unlocker's private key.
+var ErrWrongPassphrase = errors.New("wrong passphrase")
+
 // PassphraseUnlocker represents a passphrase-protected unlocker
 type PassphraseUnlocker struct {
 	Directory  string
@@ -73,6 +77,12 @@ func (p *PassphraseUnlocker) GetIdentity() (*age.X25519Identity, error) {
 		Debug("Failed to decrypt unlocker private key",
 			"error", err, "unlocker_id", p.GetID())
 
+		// age says that no identity matched when the passphrase is wrong
+		var noMatch *age.NoIdentityMatchError
+		if errors.As(err, &noMatch) {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("%w for unlocker %s", ErrWrongPassphrase, p.GetID())
+		}
+
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decrypt unlocker private key: %w", err)
 	}
 	defer privKeyBuffer.Destroy()

internal/secret/pgpunlocker.go

@@ -388,7 +388,8 @@ func ResolveGPGKeyFingerprint(keyID string) (string, error) {
 			return "", fmt.Errorf("%w: %s", ErrGPGKeyNotFound, keyID)
 		}
 
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to resolve GPG key fingerprint: %w", err)
+		return "", fmt.Errorf(
+			"failed to resolve GPG key fingerprint: %w", withGPGStderr(err))
 	}
 
 	// Parse the output to extract the fingerprint
@@ -418,6 +419,24 @@ func checkGPGAvailable() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
+// withGPGStderr appends gpg's stderr, which says why gpg failed, to err
+// from cmd.Output. cmd.Output keeps that stderr in the *exec.ExitError.
+// err is returned unchanged when gpg wrote nothing to stderr.
+func withGPGStderr(err error) error {
+	var exitErr *exec.ExitError
+
+	if !errors.As(err, &exitErr) {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	stderr := strings.TrimSpace(string(exitErr.Stderr))
+	if stderr == "" {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return fmt.Errorf("%w: %s", err, stderr)
+}
+
 // gpgEncryptDefault is the default implementation of GPG encryption
 func gpgEncryptDefault(data *memguard.LockedBuffer, keyID string) ([]byte, error) {
 	if data == nil {
@@ -437,7 +456,7 @@ func gpgEncryptDefault(data *memguard.LockedBuffer, keyID string) ([]byte, error
 
 	output, err := cmd.Output()
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("GPG encryption failed: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("GPG encryption failed: %w", withGPGStderr(err))
 	}
 
 	return output, nil
@@ -450,7 +469,7 @@ func gpgDecryptDefault(encryptedData []byte) (*memguard.LockedBuffer, error) {
 
 	output, err := cmd.Output()
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("GPG decryption failed: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("GPG decryption failed: %w", withGPGStderr(err))
 	}
 
 	// Create a secure buffer for the decrypted data

internal/secret/pgpunlocker_test.go

@@ -102,3 +102,27 @@ func TestPGPUnlockerAddedTwiceKeepsFirst(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.NotEqual(t, first.GetDirectory(), second.GetDirectory())
 	assert.Equal(t, firstFiles, dirFiles(t, fs, first.GetDirectory()))
 }
+
+// TestGPGDecryptErrorHasGPGReason runs the real gpg on data that is not an
+// OpenPGP message and checks that the error carries the reason gpg writes
+// to stderr.
+func TestGPGDecryptErrorHasGPGReason(t *testing.T) {
+	// The empty GNUPGHOME keeps gpg away from the user's own keyring;
+	// LC_ALL=C keeps gpg's message in English.
+	t.Setenv("GNUPGHOME", t.TempDir())
+	t.Setenv("LC_ALL", "C")
+
+	_, err := secret.GPGDecryptFunc([]byte("not an OpenPGP message"))
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "gpg: no valid OpenPGP data found")
+}
+
+// TestGPGDecryptErrorWithoutGPGStderr checks that when gpg fails without
+// writing to stderr, the error ends with the exit status and nothing after it.
+//
+//nolint:paralleltest // installFakeGPG uses t.Setenv
+func TestGPGDecryptErrorWithoutGPGStderr(t *testing.T) {
+	installFakeGPG(t)
+
+	_, err := secret.GPGDecryptFunc([]byte("not an OpenPGP message"))
+	require.EqualError(t, err, "GPG decryption failed: exit status 1")
+}

internal/secret/secret.go

@@ -2,10 +2,11 @@ package secret
 
 import (
 	"errors"
+	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
+	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
-	"time"
 
 	"filippo.io/age"
 	"github.com/awnumar/memguard"
@@ -66,31 +67,53 @@ func NewSecret(vault VaultInterface, name string) *Secret {
 		Name:      name,
 		Directory: secretDir,
 		vault:     vault,
-		Metadata: Metadata{
-			CreatedAt: time.Now(),
-			UpdatedAt: time.Now(),
-		},
 	}
 }
 
-// LoadMetadata is deprecated - metadata is now per-version and encrypted
+// LoadMetadata sets the secret's times from the modification times of its
+// files, which can be read without unlocking the vault. UpdatedAt is when
+// the secret's current file was last written, by an add or a promote.
+// CreatedAt is when its oldest version's value.age was written. That file
+// is never rewritten; the version's directory is no use, as its time
+// changes when the next add rewrites the version's metadata.age.
 func (s *Secret) LoadMetadata() error {
-	Debug("LoadMetadata called but is deprecated in versioned model",
+	fs := s.vault.GetFilesystem()
-		"secret_name", s.Name)
+
-	// For backward compatibility, we'll populate with basic info
+	current, err := fs.Stat(filepath.Join(s.Directory, "current"))
-	now := time.Now()
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read when secret %s was updated: %w",
+			s.Name, err)
+	}
+
+	versions, err := ListVersions(fs, s.Directory)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if len(versions) == 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("secret %s has no versions: %w", s.Name, os.ErrNotExist)
+	}
+
+	// ListVersions lists the newest version first
+	oldest := versions[len(versions)-1]
+
+	value, err := fs.Stat(
+		filepath.Join(s.Directory, "versions", oldest, "value.age"))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read when secret %s was created: %w",
+			s.Name, err)
+	}
+
 	s.Metadata = Metadata{
-		CreatedAt: now,
+		CreatedAt: value.ModTime(),
-		UpdatedAt: now,
+		UpdatedAt: current.ModTime(),
 	}
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-// GetMetadata returns the secret metadata (deprecated)
+// GetMetadata returns the times LoadMetadata read
 func (s *Secret) GetMetadata() Metadata {
-	Debug("GetMetadata called but is deprecated in versioned model", "secret_name", s.Name)
-
 	return s.Metadata
 }
 

internal/secret/version.go

@@ -32,7 +32,8 @@ type VersionMetadata struct {
 	ID        string     `json:"id"`                  // ULID
 	CreatedAt *time.Time `json:"createdAt,omitempty"` // When version was created
 	NotBefore *time.Time `json:"notBefore,omitempty"` // When this version becomes active
-	NotAfter  *time.Time `json:"notAfter,omitempty"`  // Expiry (nil = current)
+	// NotAfter is set when another version is added while this one is current
+	NotAfter *time.Time `json:"notAfter,omitempty"`
 }
 
 // Version represents a version of a secret

internal/vault/errors_test.go

@@ -81,7 +81,9 @@ func TestVaultErrors(t *testing.T) {
 			return vlt.CopySecretAllVersions(vlt, versionless, "copy", false)
 		}, vault.ErrNoVersions},
 		{"remove a missing unlocker", func(vlt *vault.Vault) error {
-			return vlt.RemoveUnlocker(missingName)
+			_, err := vlt.RemoveUnlocker(missingName)
+
+			return err
 		}, vault.ErrUnlockerNotFound},
 		{"select a missing unlocker", func(vlt *vault.Vault) error {
 			return vlt.SelectUnlocker(missingName)

internal/vault/management.go

@@ -140,8 +140,9 @@ func ListVaults(fs afero.Fs, stateDir string) ([]string, error) {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to read vaults directory: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	// Extract vault names
+	// Extract vault names. Not nil, so that no vaults prints [] in JSON,
-	var vaults []string
+	// not null.
+	vaults := make([]string, 0, len(entries))
 
 	for _, entry := range entries {
 		if entry.IsDir() {
@@ -212,16 +213,40 @@ func processMnemonicForVault(
 	return ltIdentity, derivationIndex, publicKeyHash, familyHash, nil
 }
 
+// CheckNewVaultName returns an error when name cannot be the name of a new
+// vault: one wrapping ErrInvalidVaultName when it is not a valid vault name,
+// and one wrapping ErrVaultExists when that vault already exists. Creating an
+// existing vault again would replace its keys, and its secrets could no
+// longer be decrypted. CreateVault checks this before writing anything; the
+// commands that create a vault also check it before they ask for the
+// mnemonic or passphrase, holding the state directory lock.
+func CheckNewVaultName(fs afero.Fs, stateDir string, name string) error {
+	err := ValidateVaultName(name)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	exists, err := afero.DirExists(fs, filepath.Join(stateDir, "vaults.d", name))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to check if vault exists: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	if exists {
+		return fmt.Errorf("vault %s %w", name, ErrVaultExists)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 // CreateVault creates a new vault and selects it as the current vault. When
 // mnemonic is not nil, the vault's long-term key is derived from it, and the
 // returned vault has it as its Mnemonic; when it is nil, the vault has no
-// long-term key until one is imported. When passphrase is not nil, the vault
+// long-term key. When passphrase is not nil, the vault gets a passphrase
-// gets a passphrase unlocker protected by it, as its current unlocker; that
+// unlocker protected by it, as its current unlocker; that needs a mnemonic.
-// needs a mnemonic. It refuses a vault that already exists before writing
+// It refuses an invalid name or a vault that already exists, as
-// anything: creating it again would replace its keys, and its secrets could
+// CheckNewVaultName does, before writing anything. The commands that call it
-// no longer be decrypted. The commands that call it hold the state directory
+// hold the state directory lock, so no other command can create the vault
-// lock, so no other command can create the vault between the check and the
+// between the check and the writes.
-// writes.
 //
 // The vault is written whole into a temporary directory, which is renamed
 // into vaults.d only once complete, and only then selected: a crash at any
@@ -233,30 +258,17 @@ func CreateVault(
 ) (*Vault, error) {
 	secret.Debug("Creating new vault", "name", name, "state_dir", stateDir)
 
-	err := ValidateVaultName(name)
+	err := CheckNewVaultName(fs, stateDir, name)
 	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Invalid vault name provided", "vault_name", name)
-
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	secret.Debug("Vault name validation passed", "vault_name", name)
-
-	vaultDir := filepath.Join(stateDir, "vaults.d", name)
-
-	exists, err := afero.DirExists(fs, vaultDir)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to check if vault exists: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	if exists {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("vault %s %w", name, ErrVaultExists)
-	}
-
 	if passphrase != nil && mnemonic == nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("vault %s %w", name, ErrUnlockerWithoutMnemonic)
 	}
 
+	vaultDir := filepath.Join(stateDir, "vaults.d", name)
+
 	secret.Debug("Creating vault directory structure", "vault_dir", vaultDir)
 
 	err = secret.WriteDir(fs, vaultDir, func(dir string) error {

internal/vault/metadata.go

@@ -4,7 +4,9 @@ import (
 	"crypto/sha256"
 	"encoding/hex"
 	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
@@ -33,7 +35,10 @@ func ComputeDoubleSHA256(data []byte) string {
 }
 
 // GetNextDerivationIndex finds the next available derivation index for a given mnemonic
-// by deriving the public key for index 0 and using its hash to identify related vaults
+// by deriving the public key for index 0 and using its hash to identify related vaults.
+// It fails when a vault's metadata file exists but cannot be read or parsed: the
+// index that vault uses is then unknown, and handing it out again would give a
+// second vault the same long-term key.
 func GetNextDerivationIndex(
 	fs afero.Fs, stateDir string, mnemonic string,
 ) (uint32, error) {
@@ -72,21 +77,23 @@ func GetNextDerivationIndex(
 			continue
 		}
 
-		// Try to read vault metadata
 		metadataPath := filepath.Join(vaultsDir, entry.Name(), "vault-metadata.json")
 
 		metadataBytes, err := afero.ReadFile(fs, metadataPath)
-		if err != nil {
+		if errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist) {
-			// Skip vaults without metadata
+			// Skip directories without metadata
 			continue
 		}
 
+		if err != nil {
+			return 0, fmt.Errorf("failed to read vault metadata %s: %w", metadataPath, err)
+		}
+
 		var metadata Metadata
 
 		err = json.Unmarshal(metadataBytes, &metadata)
 		if err != nil {
-			// Skip vaults with invalid metadata
+			return 0, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse vault metadata %s: %w", metadataPath, err)
-			continue
 		}
 
 		// Check if this vault uses the same mnemonic by comparing family hashes

internal/vault/metadata_test.go

@@ -1,11 +1,15 @@
 package vault_test
 
 import (
+	"errors"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/secret"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/internal/vault"
 	"sneak.berlin/go/secret/pkg/agehd"
 )
@@ -163,6 +167,88 @@ func testGetNextDerivationIndex(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs) {
 	}
 }
 
+// errMetadataUnreadable is returned by the test filesystem in place of a
+// successful open of one vault's metadata file.
+var errMetadataUnreadable = errors.New("input/output error")
+
+// metadataReadFailFs fails every open of the file at unreadablePath. The
+// file still exists, so checking for it succeeds and only reading it fails.
+type metadataReadFailFs struct {
+	afero.Fs
+
+	unreadablePath string
+}
+
+//nolint:ireturn // afero.File is the interface required by afero.Fs
+func (f *metadataReadFailFs) Open(name string) (afero.File, error) {
+	if name == f.unreadablePath {
+		return nil, errMetadataUnreadable
+	}
+
+	return f.Fs.Open(name)
+}
+
+// TestCreateVaultWithCorruptMetadataFails checks that creating a vault from
+// a mnemonic fails, naming the file and leaving no new vault, when another
+// vault's metadata file exists but cannot be parsed or read. That vault's
+// derivation index is then unknown, so the new vault could get the same one
+// and the same key.
+func TestCreateVaultWithCorruptMetadataFails(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	vaultsDir := filepath.Join(testStateDir, "vaults.d")
+	metadataPath := filepath.Join(vaultsDir, "work", "vault-metadata.json")
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name string
+		// breakMetadata makes the work vault's metadata file unusable on
+		// base and returns the filesystem to create the second vault on.
+		breakMetadata func(t *testing.T, base afero.Fs) afero.Fs
+	}{
+		{
+			name: "parsing the file fails",
+			breakMetadata: func(t *testing.T, base afero.Fs) afero.Fs {
+				t.Helper()
+
+				err := afero.WriteFile(base, metadataPath, []byte("{"),
+					secret.FilePerms)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+
+				return base
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "reading the file fails",
+			breakMetadata: func(_ *testing.T, base afero.Fs) afero.Fs {
+				return &metadataReadFailFs{Fs: base, unreadablePath: metadataPath}
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			t.Parallel()
+
+			base := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+
+			_, err := vault.CreateVault(base, testStateDir, "work",
+				testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			fs := tt.breakMetadata(t, base)
+
+			_, err = vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "other",
+				testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
+			require.ErrorContains(t, err, metadataPath)
+
+			entries, err := afero.ReadDir(base, vaultsDir)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.Len(t, entries, 1)
+			assert.Equal(t, "work", entries[0].Name())
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func testMetadataPersistence(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs) {
 	t.Helper()
 
@@ -296,91 +382,6 @@ func TestSampleHashCalculation(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestWorkflowMismatch(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	// Create a temporary directory for testing
-	tempDir := t.TempDir()
-	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
-
-	// Test Case 1: Create vault WITH mnemonic (like init command)
-	_, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, tempDir, "default", testMnemonicBuffer(t), nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to create vault with mnemonic: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	// Load metadata for vault1
-	vault1Dir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "vaults.d", "default")
-
-	metadata1, err := vault.LoadVaultMetadata(fs, vault1Dir)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to load vault1 metadata: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	t.Logf("Vault1 (with mnemonic) - DerivationIndex: %d, PublicKeyHash: %s",
-		metadata1.DerivationIndex, metadata1.PublicKeyHash)
-
-	// Test Case 2: Create vault WITHOUT mnemonic, then import (work vault)
-	_, err = vault.CreateVault(fs, tempDir, "work", nil, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to create vault without mnemonic: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	vault2Dir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "vaults.d", "work")
-
-	// Simulate the vault import process: get the next available derivation
-	// index for this mnemonic
-	derivationIndex, err := vault.GetNextDerivationIndex(fs, tempDir, testMnemonic)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to get next derivation index: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	t.Logf("Next derivation index for import: %d", derivationIndex)
-
-	// Calculate public key hash from index 0 (same as in VaultImport)
-	identity0, err := agehd.DeriveIdentity(testMnemonic, 0)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to derive identity for index 0: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	publicKeyHash := vault.ComputeDoubleSHA256(
-		[]byte(identity0.Recipient().String()))
-
-	// Load existing metadata and update it (same as in VaultImport)
-	existingMetadata, err := vault.LoadVaultMetadata(fs, vault2Dir)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to load existing metadata: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	// Update metadata with new derivation info
-	existingMetadata.DerivationIndex = derivationIndex
-	existingMetadata.PublicKeyHash = publicKeyHash
-
-	err = vault.SaveVaultMetadata(fs, vault2Dir, existingMetadata)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to save vault metadata: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	// Load updated metadata for vault2
-	metadata2, err := vault.LoadVaultMetadata(fs, vault2Dir)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("Failed to load vault2 metadata: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	t.Logf("Vault2 (imported mnemonic) - DerivationIndex: %d, PublicKeyHash: %s",
-		metadata2.DerivationIndex, metadata2.PublicKeyHash)
-
-	// Verify that both vaults have the same public key hash
-	if metadata1.PublicKeyHash != metadata2.PublicKeyHash {
-		t.Errorf("Public key hashes don't match!")
-		t.Logf("Vault1 hash: %s", metadata1.PublicKeyHash)
-		t.Logf("Vault2 hash: %s", metadata2.PublicKeyHash)
-	} else {
-		t.Logf("SUCCESS: Both vaults have the same public key hash: %s",
-			metadata1.PublicKeyHash)
-	}
-}
-
 func TestReverseEngineerHash(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 

internal/vault/secrets.go

@@ -219,6 +219,15 @@ func (v *Vault) addVersion(
 	name, secretDir string, value *memguard.LockedBuffer,
 	previousVersion *secret.Version,
 ) error {
+	// Unlock the vault before writing anything, so that a wrong passphrase
+	// or mnemonic leaves the secret as it was
+	err := v.loadPreviousVersionMetadata(previousVersion)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	// Taken after the unlock, which can wait for the user to type the
+	// passphrase, so that the new version starts when it is created
 	now := time.Now()
 
 	// Create the new version and save the encrypted value
@@ -418,7 +427,8 @@ func (v *Vault) UnlockVault() (*age.X25519Identity, error) {
 	return longTermIdentity, nil
 }
 
-// GetSecretObject retrieves a Secret object with metadata loaded from this vault
+// GetSecretObject retrieves a Secret object from this vault. Its times are
+// zero until its LoadMetadata reads them.
 func (v *Vault) GetSecretObject(name string) (*secret.Secret, error) {
 	err := ValidateSecretName(name)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -445,16 +455,7 @@ func (v *Vault) GetSecretObject(name string) (*secret.Secret, error) {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("secret %s %w", name, ErrSecretNotFound)
 	}
 
-	// Create a Secret object
+	return secret.NewSecret(v, name), nil
-	secretObj := secret.NewSecret(v, name)
-
-	// Load the metadata from disk
-	err = secretObj.LoadMetadata()
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	return secretObj, nil
 }
 
 // CopySecretVersion copies a single version from source into destSecretDir
@@ -572,8 +573,8 @@ func (v *Vault) CopySecretAllVersions(
 	}
 
 	// Copy each version and the current pointer, then move the copy into place
-	err = v.copyVersions(srcVault, srcIdentity,
+	err = v.copyVersions(srcVault, srcIdentity, srcSecretName, srcSecretDir,
-		srcSecretName, destSecretName, destSecretDir, versions, currentVersion)
+		destSecretName, destSecretDir, versions, currentVersion)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -632,8 +633,35 @@ func (v *Vault) checkExistingSecret(
 	return true, previousVersion, nil
 }
 
+// loadPreviousVersionMetadata unlocks the vault and loads the metadata of
+// the version being superseded. It is a no-op when previousVersion is nil.
+func (v *Vault) loadPreviousVersionMetadata(
+	previousVersion *secret.Version,
+) error {
+	if previousVersion == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	ltIdentity, err := v.GetOrDeriveLongTermKey()
+	if err != nil {
+		secret.Debug("Failed to get long-term key for previous version", "error", err)
+
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get long-term key: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	err = previousVersion.LoadMetadata(ltIdentity)
+	if err != nil {
+		secret.Debug("Failed to load previous version metadata", "error", err)
+
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to load previous version metadata: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 // updatePreviousVersion sets the notAfter timestamp on the version being
-// superseded. It is a no-op when previousVersion is nil.
+// superseded, whose metadata loadPreviousVersionMetadata has loaded. It is
+// a no-op when previousVersion is nil.
 func (v *Vault) updatePreviousVersion(
 	previousVersion *secret.Version, now *time.Time,
 ) error {
@@ -641,22 +669,13 @@ func (v *Vault) updatePreviousVersion(
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	// Get long-term key to decrypt/encrypt metadata
+	// loadPreviousVersionMetadata unlocked the vault, so this returns the
+	// key it keeps in memory
 	ltIdentity, err := v.GetOrDeriveLongTermKey()
 	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to get long-term key for metadata update", "error", err)
-
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get long-term key: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	// Load previous version metadata
-	err = previousVersion.LoadMetadata(ltIdentity)
-	if err != nil {
-		secret.Debug("Failed to load previous version metadata", "error", err)
-
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to load previous version metadata: %w", err)
-	}
-
 	// Update notAfter timestamp
 	previousVersion.Metadata.NotAfter = now
 
@@ -774,10 +793,13 @@ func (v *Vault) createAndSaveVersion(
 // pointer into a temporary directory, then moves that directory to
 // destSecretDir, replacing a secret already there. Nothing in this vault
 // changes until the copy is complete, so an interrupted copy leaves only a
-// temporary directory behind.
+// temporary directory behind. Each copied value.age and current file gets
+// the modification time of the file it was copied from, so `secret list`,
+// which reads a secret's times from them, lists the copy with the times of
+// the source.
 func (v *Vault) copyVersions(
 	srcVault *Vault, srcIdentity *age.X25519Identity,
-	srcSecretName, destSecretName, destSecretDir string,
+	srcSecretName, srcSecretDir, destSecretName, destSecretDir string,
 	versions []string, currentVersion string,
 ) error {
 	buildDir, err := secret.TempDirFor(v.fs, destSecretDir)
@@ -796,6 +818,14 @@ func (v *Vault) copyVersions(
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("failed to copy version %s: %w", versionName, err)
 		}
+
+		valuePath := filepath.Join("versions", versionName, "value.age")
+
+		err = copyModTime(srcVault.fs, filepath.Join(srcSecretDir, valuePath),
+			v.fs, filepath.Join(buildDir, valuePath))
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
 	}
 
 	err = secret.SetCurrentVersion(v.fs, buildDir, currentVersion)
@@ -803,6 +833,12 @@ func (v *Vault) copyVersions(
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to set current version: %w", err)
 	}
 
+	err = copyModTime(srcVault.fs, filepath.Join(srcSecretDir, "current"),
+		v.fs, filepath.Join(buildDir, "current"))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
 	// With --force, the secret being replaced goes only now that its
 	// replacement is complete
 	exists, err := afero.DirExists(v.fs, destSecretDir)
@@ -827,6 +863,26 @@ func (v *Vault) copyVersions(
 	return nil
 }
 
+// copyModTime gives destPath in destFs the modification time of srcPath in
+// srcFs.
+func copyModTime(
+	srcFs afero.Fs, srcPath string, destFs afero.Fs, destPath string,
+) error {
+	info, err := srcFs.Stat(srcPath)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to read modification time of %s: %w",
+			srcPath, err)
+	}
+
+	err = destFs.Chtimes(destPath, info.ModTime(), info.ModTime())
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to set modification time of %s: %w",
+			destPath, err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 // checkCopyDestination refuses to copy over an existing secret unless force
 // is set. A secret being replaced is removed by copyVersions, once its
 // replacement is complete.

internal/vault/secrets_version_test.go

@@ -10,6 +10,8 @@
 //   version
 // - TestVaultVersionTimestamps: Tests timestamp logic (notBefore/notAfter)
 //   across versions
+// - TestVaultVersionTimestampsAfterUnlock: Tests that those timestamps are
+//   taken after AddSecret unlocks the vault
 // - TestVaultGetNonExistentVersion: Tests error handling for invalid versions
 // - TestUpdateVersionMetadata: Tests metadata update functionality
 //
@@ -295,6 +297,70 @@ func TestVaultVersionTimestamps(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Nil(t, secondVersion.Metadata.NotAfter) // Current version
 }
 
+// longTermKeyReadFs records when longterm.age, the last file an unlock
+// reads, was last opened.
+type longTermKeyReadFs struct {
+	afero.Fs
+
+	readAt time.Time
+}
+
+//nolint:ireturn // afero.File is the interface required by afero.Fs
+func (f *longTermKeyReadFs) Open(name string) (afero.File, error) {
+	if filepath.Base(name) == "longterm.age" {
+		f.readAt = time.Now()
+	}
+
+	return f.Fs.Open(name)
+}
+
+// TestVaultVersionTimestampsAfterUnlock checks that when AddSecret has to
+// unlock the vault to replace a version, the new version's notBefore and the
+// replaced version's notAfter are taken after the unlock, which can wait for
+// the user to type the passphrase.
+func TestVaultVersionTimestampsAfterUnlock(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := &longTermKeyReadFs{Fs: afero.NewMemMapFs()}
+
+	mnemonic := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testMnemonic))
+	defer mnemonic.Destroy()
+
+	passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("test-passphrase"))
+	defer passphrase.Destroy()
+
+	created, err := CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, "test", mnemonic, passphrase)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	addTestSecretToVault(t, created, testSecretPath, []byte("version-1"), false)
+
+	// A new instance is locked; AddSecret unlocks it with the passphrase
+	vault := NewVault(fs, testStateDir, "test")
+	vault.SetUnlockPassphrase(passphrase)
+
+	addTestSecretToVault(t, vault, testSecretPath, []byte("version-2"), true)
+	require.False(t, fs.readAt.IsZero(), "AddSecret did not unlock the vault")
+
+	ltIdentity, err := vault.GetOrDeriveLongTermKey()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	vaultDir, _ := vault.GetDirectory()
+	secretDir := filepath.Join(vaultDir, "secrets.d", "test%secret")
+
+	versions, err := secret.ListVersions(fs, secretDir)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, versions, 2)
+
+	newVersion := secret.NewVersion(vault, testSecretPath, versions[0])
+	require.NoError(t, newVersion.LoadMetadata(ltIdentity))
+
+	replacedVersion := secret.NewVersion(vault, testSecretPath, versions[1])
+	require.NoError(t, replacedVersion.LoadMetadata(ltIdentity))
+
+	assert.False(t, newVersion.Metadata.NotBefore.Before(fs.readAt))
+	assert.False(t, replacedVersion.Metadata.NotAfter.Before(fs.readAt))
+}
+
 func TestVaultGetNonExistentVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 

internal/vault/unlockers.go

@@ -5,8 +5,10 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
+	"maps"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"slices"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -19,6 +21,7 @@ import (
 // Unlocker metadata type strings.
 const (
 	unlockerTypePassphrase = "passphrase"
+	unlockerTypePGP        = "pgp"
 )
 
 // GetCurrentUnlocker returns the current unlocker for this vault
@@ -52,6 +55,11 @@ func (v *Vault) GetCurrentUnlocker() (secret.Unlocker, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
+	err = v.checkCurrentUnlockerExists(unlockerDir)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
 	secret.DebugWith("Resolved unlocker directory",
 		slog.String("unlocker_dir", unlockerDir),
 		slog.String("vault_name", v.Name),
@@ -74,7 +82,7 @@ func (v *Vault) GetCurrentUnlocker() (secret.Unlocker, error) {
 		passphraseUnlocker := secret.NewPassphraseUnlocker(v.fs, unlockerDir, metadata)
 		passphraseUnlocker.Passphrase = v.UnlockPassphrase
 		unlocker = passphraseUnlocker
-	case "pgp":
+	case unlockerTypePGP:
 		secret.Debug("Creating PGP unlocker instance", "unlocker_type", metadata.Type)
 
 		unlocker = secret.NewPGPUnlocker(v.fs, unlockerDir, metadata)
@@ -119,6 +127,37 @@ func (v *Vault) resolveUnlockerDirectory(currentUnlockerPath string) (string, er
 	return absolutePath, nil
 }
 
+// checkCurrentUnlockerExists fails with ErrUnlockerNotFound, saying to
+// select another unlocker, when unlockerDir, the unlocker directory that
+// current-unlocker names, does not exist and the vault has another unlocker
+// that SelectUnlocker accepts. When it has none, it returns nil: reading the
+// missing unlocker then fails, with the advice that the mnemonic still opens
+// the vault.
+func (v *Vault) checkCurrentUnlockerExists(unlockerDir string) error {
+	exists, err := afero.DirExists(v.fs, unlockerDir)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to check for the current unlocker: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	if exists {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	otherID, err := v.firstOtherUnlockerID(filepath.Base(unlockerDir))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if otherID == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	return fmt.Errorf("unlocker with ID %s %w; the vault '%s' has other "+
+		"unlockers: run %s with the ID of one of them to make it the current "+
+		"unlocker", filepath.Base(unlockerDir), ErrUnlockerNotFound, v.Name,
+		v.withVaultSelect("'secret unlocker select'"))
+}
+
 // findUnlockerByID finds an unlocker by its ID and returns the unlocker
 // instance and its directory path. A directory that ListUnlockers skips is
 // skipped here too, with the same warning. Such a directory has no ID: if
@@ -159,7 +198,7 @@ func (v *Vault) findUnlockerByID(
 		switch metadata.Type {
 		case unlockerTypePassphrase:
 			tempUnlocker = secret.NewPassphraseUnlocker(v.fs, unlockerDirPath, metadata)
-		case "pgp":
+		case unlockerTypePGP:
 			tempUnlocker = secret.NewPGPUnlocker(v.fs, unlockerDirPath, metadata)
 		default:
 			continue
@@ -282,10 +321,15 @@ func (v *Vault) HasUnlocker(unlockerID string) (bool, error) {
 // RemoveUnlocker removes an unlocker from this vault. An unlocker
 // directory that ListUnlockers skips is removed by its directory name; its
 // type is unknown, so only the directory is removed.
-func (v *Vault) RemoveUnlocker(unlockerID string) error {
+//
+// It returns the ID of the unlocker it made current, or "" when it made none
+// current. If the removed unlocker is the current one, the unlocker
+// firstOtherUnlockerID returns is made current before the removal; with
+// none, current-unlocker is removed after it.
+func (v *Vault) RemoveUnlocker(unlockerID string) (string, error) {
 	vaultDir, err := v.GetDirectory()
 	if err != nil {
-		return err
+		return "", err
 	}
 
 	// Find the unlocker directory and create the unlocker instance
@@ -294,19 +338,92 @@ func (v *Vault) RemoveUnlocker(unlockerID string) error {
 	// Find the unlocker by ID
 	unlocker, unlockerDir, err := v.findUnlockerByID(unlockersDir, unlockerID)
 	if err != nil {
-		return err
+		return "", err
 	}
 
 	if unlockerDir == "" {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unlocker with ID %s %w", unlockerID, ErrUnlockerNotFound)
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("unlocker with ID %s %w", unlockerID, ErrUnlockerNotFound)
+	}
+
+	currentUnlockerPath := filepath.Join(vaultDir, "current-unlocker")
+
+	currentDir, err := v.resolveUnlockerDirectory(currentUnlockerPath)
+	if err != nil && !errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist) {
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	isCurrent := currentDir == unlockerDir
+	newCurrentID := ""
+
+	if isCurrent {
+		newCurrentID, err = v.selectOtherUnlocker(unlockerID)
+		if err != nil {
+			return "", err
+		}
 	}
 
 	if unlocker == nil {
-		return secret.RemoveDirAtomic(v.fs, unlockerDir)
+		err = secret.RemoveDirAtomic(v.fs, unlockerDir)
+	} else {
+		err = unlocker.Remove()
 	}
 
-	// Use the unlocker's Remove method
+	if err != nil {
-	return unlocker.Remove()
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	if isCurrent && newCurrentID == "" {
+		err = v.fs.Remove(currentUnlockerPath)
+		if err != nil {
+			return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to remove current-unlocker file: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return newCurrentID, nil
+}
+
+// selectOtherUnlocker makes the unlocker firstOtherUnlockerID returns for
+// unlockerID the current unlocker and returns its ID. It returns "" when
+// there is no such unlocker.
+func (v *Vault) selectOtherUnlocker(unlockerID string) (string, error) {
+	otherID, err := v.firstOtherUnlockerID(unlockerID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	if otherID == "" {
+		return "", nil
+	}
+
+	err = v.SelectUnlocker(otherID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	return otherID, nil
+}
+
+// firstOtherUnlockerID returns the ID of the vault's first unlocker other
+// than unlockerID, in ID order, the order `secret unlocker list` shows, that
+// SelectUnlocker accepts, or "" when there is none. SelectUnlocker refuses
+// an unlocker whose metadata names a type other than passphrase or pgp,
+// which ListUnlockers still returns.
+func (v *Vault) firstOtherUnlockerID(unlockerID string) (string, error) {
+	unlockers, err := v.ListUnlockers()
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	for _, id := range slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(unlockers)) {
+		unlockerType := unlockers[id].Type
+
+		if id != unlockerID && (unlockerType == unlockerTypePassphrase ||
+			unlockerType == unlockerTypePGP) {
+			return id, nil
+		}
+	}
+
+	return "", nil
 }
 
 // SelectUnlocker selects an unlocker as current for this vault

internal/vault/vault.go

@@ -291,9 +291,14 @@ func (v *Vault) unlockLongTermKey(
 // without a mnemonic records none, and without its metadata the key cannot
 // be derived. It is not added when the passphrase could not be read: the
 // unlocker was not tried, and adding one would need a passphrase read the
-// same way.
+// same way. Nor is it added when the passphrase is wrong: the unlocker still
+// opens the vault with the right one. Nor is it added when the current
+// unlocker does not exist and the vault has others: the error already says
+// to select one of them.
 func (v *Vault) withMnemonicAdvice(err error) error {
-	if errors.Is(err, secret.ErrPassphraseNotRead) {
+	if errors.Is(err, secret.ErrPassphraseNotRead) ||
+		errors.Is(err, secret.ErrWrongPassphrase) ||
+		errors.Is(err, ErrUnlockerNotFound) {
 		return err
 	}
 
@@ -304,15 +309,21 @@ func (v *Vault) withMnemonicAdvice(err error) error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	// 'secret unlocker add' acts on the current vault only.
-	steps := "'secret unlocker add passphrase'"
-
-	current, currentErr := GetCurrentVault(v.fs, v.stateDir)
-	if currentErr != nil || current.Name != v.Name {
-		steps = fmt.Sprintf("'secret vault select %s', then %s", v.Name, steps)
-	}
-
 	return fmt.Errorf("%w; the vault '%s' still opens with its mnemonic: run "+
 		"%s with %s set to the mnemonic to give it a new unlocker",
-		err, v.Name, steps, secret.EnvMnemonic)
+		err, v.Name, v.withVaultSelect("'secret unlocker add passphrase'"),
+		secret.EnvMnemonic)
+}
+
+// withVaultSelect returns command, a quoted 'secret unlocker' command, for
+// advice about this vault. Such a command acts on the current vault only,
+// so when this vault is not the current one, the command that selects it
+// comes first.
+func (v *Vault) withVaultSelect(command string) string {
+	current, err := GetCurrentVault(v.fs, v.stateDir)
+	if err != nil || current.Name != v.Name {
+		return fmt.Sprintf("'secret vault select %s', then %s", v.Name, command)
+	}
+
+	return command
 }

internal/vault/vault_error_test.go

@@ -103,3 +103,76 @@ func TestAddSecretCleansUpOnFailure(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Len(t, entries, 1)
 	assert.Equal(t, "pub.age", entries[0].Name())
 }
+
+// TestAddSecretForceWithWrongPassphraseChangesNothing checks that adding a
+// version to an existing secret, with a passphrase that does not open the
+// vault, fails and leaves the secret's directory as it was.
+func TestAddSecretForceWithWrongPassphraseChangesNothing(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+
+	passphrase := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte(testPassphrase))
+	t.Cleanup(passphrase.Destroy)
+
+	created, err := vault.CreateVault(fs, testStateDir, testVaultName,
+		testMnemonicBuffer(t), passphrase)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	first := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("first"))
+	t.Cleanup(first.Destroy)
+
+	require.NoError(t, created.AddSecret(testSecretName, first, false))
+
+	wrong := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("wrong passphrase"))
+	t.Cleanup(wrong.Destroy)
+
+	vlt := vault.NewVault(fs, testStateDir, testVaultName)
+	vlt.SetUnlockPassphrase(wrong)
+
+	secretDir := filepath.Join(testStateDir, "vaults.d", testVaultName,
+		"secrets.d", testSecretName)
+	before := dirContents(t, fs, secretDir)
+
+	second := memguard.NewBufferFromBytes([]byte("second"))
+	t.Cleanup(second.Destroy)
+
+	err = vlt.AddSecret(testSecretName, second, true)
+
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, secret.ErrWrongPassphrase)
+	assert.Equal(t, before, dirContents(t, fs, secretDir))
+}
+
+// dirContents maps every file under dir to its contents, and every
+// directory, written with a trailing "/", to "".
+func dirContents(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs, dir string) map[string]string {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	contents := map[string]string{}
+
+	err := afero.Walk(fs, dir, func(
+		path string, info os.FileInfo, err error,
+	) error {
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		if info.IsDir() {
+			contents[path+"/"] = ""
+
+			return nil
+		}
+
+		content, err := afero.ReadFile(fs, path)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		contents[path] = string(content)
+
+		return nil
+	})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	return contents
+}